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150M/01 -92-941 680 


FARM  AND  GARDEN  RULE-BOOK 


Xlbe  IRural  /IDanuals 

^[anual  of  Gardening  —  Bailey 

^Fanual  of  Farm  Animals  —  Harper 

Farm  and  Garden  Rule-Book  —  Bailey 

Manual  of  Home-Making  —  In  j)reparation 

Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants  —  In  prepara- 
tion 


FARM  AND  GARDEN 
RULE-BOOK 

A  MANUAL  OF  EEADY  EULES  AND  REFERENCE 

WITH    RECIPES,    PRECEPTS,     FORMULAS,    AND     TABULAR    INFORMA- 
TION    FOR     THE     USE     OF    GENERAL    FARMERS,    GARDENERS, 
FRUIT-GROWERS,     STOCKMEN,     DAIRYMEN,      POULTRY- 
MEN,     FORESTERS,     RURAL     TEACHERS,     AND 
OTHERS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    AND 
CANADA 


BY 


l:  h:'  bailey 


NINETEENTH  EDITION 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1929 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1911, 
By  the  MACailLLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.      Published  November,  iqii.     Reprinted 
August,  1912  ;  June,  1914. 

New  edition,  with  corrections,  November,  1915  ;   July,  1917. 


NortoootJ  19reB8 

J.  8.  CiiHhliiL'  <•'..      r.tTwick  &,  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

The  first  edition  of  this  manual  was  published  late  in  1889, 
and  the  second  early  in  1892,  both  by  the  Rural  Publishing 
Company,  publisher  of  the  "American  Garden"  and  "  Kural 
New-Yorker."  The  third  edition,  much  remodeled,  was  pub- 
lished by  The  Macmillan  Co.,  May,  1895.  The  book  has 
been  reprinted,  February,  1896;  May,  1897;  August,  1898;  Au- 
gust, 1899;  June,  1901;  October,  November,  1902;  February, 
1904;  July,  1905;  January,  1907;  May,  June,  1908;  August, 
1909. 

The  old  form  of  the  book,  under  the  title  "  The  Horticulturist's 
Rule-Book,"  is  now  to  be  discontinued,  having  served  its  place 
and  day  So  far  as  I  know,  it  was  the  first  compilation  of  its 
kind  in  this  countr}^,  and  therefore  it  was  very  imperfect  and 
incomplete.  The  intervening  years,  covering  nearly  a  quarter 
century,  have  also  seen  a  vast  enlargement  of  the  farmer's  hori- 
zon, so  that  the  little  book  that  I  prepared  in  my  novice  days  can 
no  longer  represent  the  situation. 

I  am  sure  that  I  have  more  misgiving  in  putting  out  this 
larger  and  completer  book  than  I  had  in  the  small  first  effort 
The  field  is  wider,  and  therefore  more  difficult  to  cover;  and 
knowledge  has  grown  so  uninterruptedly  that  one  knows  scarcely 
where  to  begin  and  what  to  compass.  The  only  definite  point  is 
where  to  end,  for  publishers  fortunately  set  limits  to  sizes  of 
books ;  and  when  this  limit  was  reached  I  discarded  three  or  four 
chapters  and  prepared  the  index. 

For  myself,  I  am  conscious  of  the  many  good  things  that  have 
not  been  printed  in  the  book;  but  I  hope  that  my  consultant 
—  I  cannot  expect  to  have  a  reader  for  a  book  of  this  sort  — 
will  find  some  satisfaction  in  the  things  that  are  included.    Every 

45648 


vi  PREFACE 

care  has  been  taken  to  choose  reliable  sources  of  information, 
but  I  can  scarcely  hope  to  have  escaped  errors;  and  of  course 
I  cannot  hold  myself  responsible  for  the  value  of  the  many 
diverse  varieties  of  information  and  advice  that  are  here  collected. 
Any  user  of  tlie  book  will  do  me  a  kindness  if  he  reports  to  me 
any  error  that  he  may  discover.  If  the  new  book  should  meet 
with  the  favor  that  fell  to  the  old,  I  shall  need  these  suggestions 
in  the  making  of  new  editions ;  but  I  can  hardly  hope  that 
such  continued  favor  will  come  to  it,  for  this  would  mean  that 
the  two  would  span  a  half  century,  and  in  these  rapidly  enlarg- 
ing days  this  is  too  much  to  expect  of  any  fascicle  of  facts. 

I  am  indebted  to  many  good  persons  for  the  information  con- 
tained in  the  book,  as  the  names  in  the  proper  places  testify ;  but 
I  am  specially  under  obligation  to   Professor  A.   R.   Mann  for 

much  help. 

L    H.  BAILEY. 

Ithaca,  N.Y.,  September  1,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAOBS 

The  Weather 1-23 

How  to  use  the  Weather  Map 2 

The  storm -tracks,  2  —  The  weather  map,  4  —  The  weather  indi- 
cations, 5. 

Weather  Bureau  Forecasts ,6 

Signals  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  7  —  Canadian 
signals,  8. 

Barometer  and  Wind  Indications 9 

Popular  Weather  Signs ll 

Frosts,  and  Methods  of  Protection 12 

How  frost  forms,  12  — To  find  the  dew-point,  14  — Table  for 
determining  temperature  of  dew-point,  15  —  Methods  of  protec- 
tion against  frost,  16. 

Phenology ^7 

Climate  and  Crop  Production ;  keeping  Becords         ....       19 
Climatic  records  compiled  by  the  weather  services,  20  —  How 
climatic  data  may  be  secured,  21  —  Making  local  observations,  23. 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Elements  and  the  Soil 24-39 

Distribution  of  the  Elements 25 

The  atmosphere,  25 — The  elements  essential  to  the  life  and 

growth  of  plants,  25  —  Ultimate  composition  of  a  wheat  plant,  26 

—  Ultimate  composition  of  human  body,  26. 
The  Ash  and  Mineral  Parts  of  Animals  and  Plants    ....       26 

Mineral  elements  in  animal  bodies.  27  —  Composition  of  ash  of 

human  body,  27  —  Composition  of  the  ash  of  leading  farm  crops, 

28. 

Chemical  Compounds 28 

The  Soil 29 

Classification  of  soils  in  respect  to  origin,  29  —  Classification  of 

vii 


viii  CCNTENTS 

PAQES 

soil  constituents,  20  — Weight  of  soils,  30  — Texture  of  the  soil, 
32. 

Soil  Watrr 32 

Amount  of  water  used  by  various  crops  in  producing  a  ton  of 
dry  matter,  32  —  Mean  volume  of  water  held  by  different  soils,  33 
—  Water  evaporated  by  growing  plants  for  one  i)art  of  dry  mat- 
ter produced,  33  —  Water  needed  under  arid  conditions,  34. 

Plant-food  in  the  Soil 34 

Plant-food  in  surface  soil,  with  calculations  to  pounds  in  an  acre, 
34. 

Alkali  Lands 35 

The  normal  condition  of  arid  lands,  35  —  Percentage  composition 
of  alkali,  3<)  —  Quantity  of  gypsum  required  to  neutralize  sodium 
carbonate,  37. 

Tillage,  and  Soil  Management .       37 

Objects  of  tillage,  37  —  Jordan's  rules  of  fertility,  38. 

CHAPTER   III 

Chemical  Fkrtilizkks  ;    and  Limk       ......  40-80 

Some  of  the  Sources  of  Chemical  Fertilizers        .         .         .         .         .41 

Composition  of  materials  used  as  sources  of  nitrogen,  41  —  Com- 
position of  materials  used  as  sources  of  phosphoric  acid,  41  — 
Marketed  production  of  phosphate  rock  in  United  States,  41  — 
World's  production  of  phosphate  rock,  1005-11)07,  42  —  Average 
composition  of  Stassfurt  potash  salts,  42  —  Potash  salts  produced 
in  the  United  States,  1850  to  1905,  43  —  Importation  of  potash 
salts,  43 — Pota-ssic  materials  produced  by  the  aid  of  electricity, 
44  —  Principal  potash  material  used  in  United  States,  45. 
Fertilizer  Formulas  and  Guarantrcs   .......       45 

Methods  of  Computing  Value  of  Fertilizers 47 

Trade-values  of  plant-food  elements  in  raw  materials  and  chemi- 
cals, 1010.  47  —  Valuation  and  cost  of  fertilizers.  48  —  Valuation, 
and  agricultural  value,  48  —  Rule  for  calculating  approximate 
commercial  valuation  of  mixed  fertilizers.  48  —  Computing  the 
trade  value,  40—  IIow  to  figure  the  trade  value,  in  greater  detail, 
50. 

Home-Miring  of  Fertilizers 52 

General  advice,  52  —  Incompatibles  in  fertilizer  mixtures.  53  — 
Table  for  calculating  raw  materials  required  per  ton  by  mixtures 
of  given  composition,  53. 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGES 

Soil  Analysis  and  Fertilizer  Tests       .        .        o        ,         o        .        .       54 
Field  tests  to  determine  fertilizer  needs,  56. 

Analyses  of  Various  Chemical  Fertilizer  and  Belated  Materials  .  57 
Dissolved  bone-black,  57  —  Bone  charcoal,  57  —  Ground  bone, 
57  — Dried  blood,  58 —  Dry  ground  fish,  58  —  Sulfate  of  ammo- 
nia, 58  —  Sulfate  of  potash,  58  —  Sulfate  of  magnesia,  58  —  Nitrate 
of  Soda,  58  —  Muriate  of  potash,  58  —  German  potash  salts,  58  — 
Kainit,  59  —  Land-plaster  or  gypsum,  59  —  Ashes,  unleached,  59 
—  Ashes,  leached,  59  —  Coal  ashes,  bituminous,  59  —  Coal  ashes, 
anthracite,  59  —  Gas-lime,  59  —  Seaweed,  60. 

Fertilizer  Formulas  for  Various  Crops 60 

Formulas  suggested  by  Maine  Experiment  Station,  60  —  Specific 
mixtures  for  different  crops,  63. 

Lime  for  the  Land        ..........       77 

To  determine  whether  a  soil  is  acid,  77 — Application  of  lime, 
78  —  Forms  of  lime,  78  —  Fineness  of  division,  79  —  Classification 
of  lime  for  agricultural  purposes,  79  —  Other  tests  for  lime,  80. 


CHAPTER   IV 

Farm  Manures,  axd  Similar  Materials    .....  81-91 

Composition  and  Characteristics  of  Manures 81 

Cattle  manure,  81  —  Stable  or  horse  manure,  81  —  Sheep  ma- 
nure, 82  —  Hog  manure,  82. 

Composition  of  Manure  from  Different  Animals  .        .         .         .82 

Composition  of  fresh  excrement  of  farm  quadrupeds,  8.3  —  Com- 
position of  drainage  liquors,  83  —  Composition  of  litter,  84  — 
Poultry  manures,  81. 

Utilization  of  Manures 85 

Rate  of  production,  85  —  Use  of  manures,  86  —  Commercial 
value,  86  —  Losses  by  leaching,  .87. 

Further  Analyses  of  Animal  Excrements    .         .....       88 

Common  barnyard  manure,  fresh,  88  —  Common  barnyard 
manure,  moderately  rotted,  88  — Same,  thoroughly  rotted,  88  — 
Cattle-feces,  fresh,  88  —  Cattle-urine,  fresh,  88  —  Horse-feces, 
fresh,  88 — Horse-urine,  fresh,  89  —  Sheep-feces,  fresh,  89  — 
Sheep- urine,  fresh,  89  —  Swine  feces,  fresh,  89  —  Swine-urine, 
fresh,  89  —  Peruvian  guano,  89  —  Human  feces,  fresh,  90  —  Human 
urine,  fresh,  90  —  Sewage,  90. 

Analyses  of  Fruit  and  Garden  Products^  with  reference  to  their  Fer- 
tilizing Constituents 90 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    V 

PAOE8 

Seed-Tahles 92-106 

Quantity  <\f  Seed  required  per  Acre     .......       92 

liny  and  Pasture  Seeds 94 

rennaiii'iit   meadows,   94  —  Permanent  pastures,   94  —  Number 

and  weight  of  grass  seed,  and  another  estimate  of  quantity  to  sow, 

94  —  Examples  of  seed  mixtures  that  would  furnish   20,000,000 

grass  seeds  per  acre,  95  —  Testing  grass  seed,  96. 
Numher  of  Tree-Seeds  in  a  Pound 96 

Fruit  trees,  96  —  Forest  trees,  96. 
Weights  and  Sizes  of  Seeds 97 

Seedmen's  customary  weights  per  bushel,  97  —  Weight  and  size 

of  garden  seeds,  98. 
Figures  of  Germination  and  Purity      .......     100 

Testing  seeds,  100 — High  average  percentage  of  purity  and  of 

germination  of  high-grade  seeds,  101  —  Average  time  required  for 

garden  seeds  to  germinate,  102. 
Longevity  of  Seeds 102 

Vilmorin's    tables,  102  —  Haberlandt's    figures,    104 — Vitality 

of  seeds  buried  in  soil,  104. 
Average  Yields  of  Garden  Seed- Crops 105 


CHAPTER   VI 

laxting-Tables 106-123 

Dates  for  Sowing  or  Setting  Kitchen-Garden   Vegetables  in  Differ- 
ent Latitudes 106 

Lansing,  Michigan,  106  —  Boston,  106  —  New  York,  107 — Nor- 
folk, 107  —  Georgia,  108  —  'IVndor  and  hardy  vegetables,  108. 

Date-Tahles 109 

Vegeta])le-gardener's  planting-table,  109  —  Usual  planting  dates 
for  field  crops,  110  —  Flower-planting  table,  116. 

Distance -Tattles .119 

Usual  distances  apart  for  planting  fruits,  119  —  Usual  distances 
apart  for  planting  vegetables,  119— Orange  trees,  119  —  Number 
of  plants  reijuired  to  set  an  acre  of  ground  at  given  distances, 
120  —  Quincunx  planting,  12.'}. 

Flan  for  a  Home  Garden     .         .        « 123 


CONTENTS  Xi 

CHAPTER   VII 

PAGES 

Maturities,  Yields,  and  Multiplication 124-132 

Matunty- Tables 124 

Time  required  for  maturity  of  different  garden  crops,  reckoned 
from  the  sowing  of  the  seeds,  124  —  Time  required,  from  setting, 
for  fruit-plants  to  bear  (for  northern  and  central  latitudes)  124 
—  Average  profitable  longevity  of  fruit-plants  under  high  culture, 
125. 

Yield-Tables 125 

Average  full  yields  per  acre  of  various  horticultural  crops,  125  — 
Yields  of  farm  crops,  127. 

Propagation- Tables      .         .  130 

Tabular  statement  of  the  ways  in  which  plants  are  propagated, 
130  —  Particular  methods  by  which  various  fruits  are  multiplied, 
130  —  Stocks  commonly  used  for  various  fruits,  131  —  How  vege- 
table crops  are  propagated,  131  —  How  farm  crops  are  propa- 
gated, 132. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

Crops  for  Special  Farm  Practices.     Hojie    Storage   and   Keep- 
ing OF  Crops 133-149 

Forage  Crops 133 

Roughage,  133  — Fodder,  133  — Soiling,  133  — Silage,  134. 

Soiling  Crops 134 

Soiling  crops  adapted  to  northern  New  England,  135  —  Time  of 
planting  and  feeding  soiling  crops,  135  —  Soiling  crops  for  Penn- 
sylvania, 136  —  Crops  for  partial  soiling  for  Illinois  during  mid- 
summer, 130  —  Succession  of  soiling  crops  for  dairy  cows  for 
Wisconsin,  136  —  Mississippi,  137  —  Kansas,  137  —  Dates  for 
planting  and  using  soiling  crops  in  western  Oregon  and  western 
Washington,  137  —  Dairyman's  rotation  in  middle  latitudes,  137. 

Cover-Crops 138 

Catch-Crops 139 

Nurse-Crops 140 

Field  Boot-Crops 140 

Methods  of  Keeping  and  Storing  Fruits  and  Vegetables      .         .         .     141 
Apples,    141  —  Cabbage,    142  —  Celery,    142  —  Crystallized    or 
glac6  fruit,  143  —  Figs,  144  —  Gooseberries,  144  —  Grapes,  144  — 
Onions,  146— Orange,  147  — Pears,  147  —  Quince,  147  —  Roots, 
147— Squash,  147 —Sweet-potato,  148  — Tomato,  149. 
Cold  Storage 14fl 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    IX 

PAQEB 

Commercial  Grauks  of  Cuor  Products.     Fruit  Packages      .      150-171 

Cotton  Grades l''>0 

Orades  of  Ilaij  and  Straw 151 

Hay,  151  — Alfalfa,  152  — Straw,  152. 
Grades  of  Grain  ...........     153 

White  winter  wheat,  153  —  Red  winter  wheat,  154  —  Hard  winter 
wheat,  154  —  Northern  spring  wheat,  154  —  Spring  wheat,  155  — 
White  spring  wheat,   155  —  Durum  wheat,   155  —  Velvet  chaff 
wheat,  150  —  Pacific  Coast  wheat,   150  —  Mixed  wheat,   157  — 
Rye,  157  —  White  oats,  157  —  Mixed  oats,  158  —  Red  or  rust- 
proof oats,  158 — White  clipped  oats,  158  —  Mixed  clipped  oats, 
159_l»uritied  oats,  159  — Corn,  150— White  corn,  100  — Yellow 
corn,   100 — Mixed   corn,    100  —  Milo-maize,   100  —  KalBr  corn, 
101  — Barley,  101  —  Winter  barley,  102  — Sample  grades,  103. 
Fruit  Packages    ...........     163 

California  deciduous  fruits,  103  —  Chautauqua  grape  figures,  104 
—  California  citrus  fruits,   104  —  Apple  boxes,  104  —  Canadian 
fruit  packages,  1(57 — Proposed  United  States  standards,  108. 
Packages  for  truck  crops,  including  strawberries      ,         .  .        .     169 


CHAPTER   X 

The  JinoixG  of  Farms,  Crops,  and  Plants.     Exhibition  and  No- 
menclature Rules.     Emblematic  Plants  and  Flowers         172-180 
Farms  and  Farm  Practices  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .172 

The  agricultural  virtues,  172  —  Loudon's  rules  for  gardeners,  173 

—  Essential  i)oint.s  to  consider  in  the  organization  of  a  farm,  174 

—  Points  of  a  good  farm,  174  —  Score-card  for  farms,  175. 

Corn  and  Potators 177 

Score-card  for  dent  corn,  177  —  For  use  in  the  plant  selection  of 
seed  corn,  177  —  Card  for  use  in  judging  varieties  of  corn  at 
husking  time,  177  —  Score-card  for  potatoes,  177. 

Standards  for  Judging  Fruits  at  Erhibitinns 177 

Api)les  and  pears,  177  —  Peaches,  177  —  Plums,  178  —  Cherries, 
178  — Grapes,  178  — Collections,  178  — Barrel  apples,  178  — Box 
apples,  179. 

Flowers  and  Plants 179 

The  American  Rose  Society  scale  of  points,  179 — Standardiza- 
tion of  roses,  179  —  Carnations,  179  —  Gladiolus,  180  —  Chrysan- 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAQE8 

themum,    180  —  Sweet  pea,    180  —  Scale   of  points  of  florists' 

plants,  180. 
Sample  BuJes  to  Govern  Exhibitions 181 

Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  rules,  181. 
Nomenclature  Rules 183 

Rules  for  naming  kitchen-garden  vegetables,    183  —  American 

Pomological  Society  rules  of  nomenclature,  183. 
Emblematic  Plants  and  Flowers 185 

State  flowers,  185  —  National  and  regional  flowers,  186  —  Party 

flowers,  186. 

CHAPTER   XI 

Greenhouse  and  Window-Garden  Work 187-201 

Greenhouse  Practice 187 

Potting  earth,  187  —  Suggestions  for  potting  plants,  188  —  Wat- 
ering greenhouse  and  window  plants,  188  —  Liquid  manure  for 
greenhouses,  188. 

Lists  of  Plants 189 

Twenty-five  plants  adapted  to  window-gardens,  189  —  Vegetable- 
growing  under  glass,  190  —  Twenty-five  useful  aquatic  and  sub- 
aquatic  plants  for  outdoor  use,  191 — Commercial  plants  and 
flowers,  or  "florists'  plants,"  191. 

The  Heating  of  Greenhouses 192 

Methods  of  proportioning  radiating  surface  for  heating  of  green- 
houses, 192  —  Size  of  pipes  connecting  radiating  surface  and  the 
boiler  or  heater,  194  —  Table  of  dimensions  of  standard  wrought- 
iron  pipe,  194  —  To  design  heating  surface,  195. 

Other  Infor7nation  relating  to  Heating 195 

Diameters  for  chimney  flues,  195  —  Effects  of  wind  in  cooling 
glass,  196  —  Table  of  radiation  for  glass,  196  —  Radiating  surface 
of  pipes,  197  —  Method  of  finding  boiler  capacity  for  cast-iron 
pipe,  198  —  Customary  temperatures  in  which  plants  are  grown 
under  glass,  198. 

Various  Estimates  and  Becipes 198 

Percentage  of  rays  of  light  reflected  from  glass  roofs  at  various 
angles  of  divergence  from  the  perpendicular,  198  —  Angle  of  roof 
for  different  heights  and  widths  of  house,  199  —  Standard  flower- 
pots, 199  —  To  prevent  boilers  from  filling  with  sediment  or  scale, 
200  —  To  prepare  paper  and  cloth  for  hotbed  sash,  200  —  Paint  for 
hot-water  pipes,  200  —  Liquid  putty  for  glazing,  201  — Paint  for 
shading  greenhouse  roofs,  201  —  To  keep  flower-pots  clean,  201. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    XII 

PAGES 

Forestry  axd  Timber 202-220 

Planting  Xotes '^^^ 

NuraiTy  planting-table  for  forest  trees,  202  —  Forest  planting, 

1-03. 

Eardness  of  Common  Commercial  Woods 204 

Forest  Yieldn 204 

Approximate  time  required  to  produce  wood  crops,  204  —  Yield 
of  white  pine,  206. 

Life  of  Fence- Pouts  and  Shingles 207 

Durability  of  fence-posts  in  Minnesota,  207  —  Prolonging  the  life 
of  fenco-post.s,  207  —  Prolonging  the  life  of  shingles,  209  — Sug- 
gestions for  couiinunity  action,  210. 
Board  Mf'asure     .......•.••     210 

Curd  Measure       ...........     211 

Log  Measure        ........•••     212 

Scribner  decimal  log  rule,  214. 

U.  S.  Purest  Service  Log-Scaling  Directions 214 

Allowances  for  taper,  216. 
Cubic  Log  Measure      .  .         .         .         .         .         .         •         .216 

Method  by  measurement  of  length  and  middle  diameters,  217  — 
By  length  and  end  diameters,  217  —  Solid  cubic  contents  of  logs, 
218. 
Cubic  Contents  of  Square  Timber  in  Bound  Logs     ....     218 

The  two-thirds  rule,  219  —  The  inscribed-square  rule,  220. 

CHAPTER   XIII 

Weeds 221-233 

General  Practices 221 

Annual  weeds,  221  —  Biennials,  222  —  Perennials,  222. 
Chemical  Weed-killers  or  Herbicides 223 

Salt,  223  — Copper  sulfate  (blue  vitriol),  223  — Iron  sulfate,  223 

—  Kerosene,  223  —  Carbolic  acid,  224  —  Sulfuric  acid  (oil  of 
vitriol),  224  — Caustic  soda,  224  —  Arsenical  compounds,  224. 

Applicatiun  of  Herbicides 224 

Gravel  roadways,  gutters,  tennis  courts,  walks,  224  —  List  of 
weeds  that  may  be  controlled  by  means  of  chemical  sprays,  225 

—  List  of  weeds  on  which  present  spraying  methods  are  not  effec- 
tive, 22.') — Rhode  Island  experience  with  iron  sulfate,  226  — 
South  DakoU  experience  with  iron  sulfate,  220— Ohio  experi- 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGES 

ence,  226  —  Cornell  experience,  227  —  Various  experiences,  227 
/      —  When  to  apply  weed  sprays,  228. 
Treatment  for  Particular  Weeds 229 

Poison  ivy,  229  —  Prickly  lettuce,  229  — Bracted  plantain,  229 

—  Horse  nettle,  229  — Buffalo  bur,  229— Spiny  amaranth,  229 

—  Spiny  cocklebur,  229  —  Chondrilla,  230  —  Wild  carrot,  230  — 
Wild  oats,  230  —  False  flax,  230  —  Mustard,  230  —  King-head, 
230  — Canada  thistle,  230  — Dandelion,  231  —Sow  thistle,  231  — 
Quack-grass,  231  —  White  daisy,  231  —  Black  mustard,  232  — 
Orange  hawkweed  and  chickweed,  232. 

Lawns 232 

Weeds  in  lawns,  232  —  Moss  on  lawns  and  walks,  233. 
Moss  or  Lichen  on  Trees 233 


CHAPTER   XIV 

Pests  and  Nuisances 234-251 

Mice  and  Bats 234 

To  prevent  mice  from  girdling  trees  in  winter,  234  —  Washes  to 
protect  trees  from  mice,  235  —  Carbonate  of  baryta  for  rats  and 
mice,  235  —  Tartar  emetic,  235  —  Strychnine  for  mice,  235  — 
Camphor  for  rats  and  mice,  236 — French  paste,  236 — Phosphorus, 
236  —  To  protect  seed-corn  from  burrowing  animals,  236. 

Rabbits 236 

Wash  for  keeping  rabbits,  sheep,  and  mice  away  from  trees,  236 

—  Blood  for  rabbits,  236  —  To  drive  rabbits  from  orchards,  237 

—  Another  wash,  237  —  California  rabbit- wash,  237  —  California 
rabbit  poisons,  237  —  Sulfur  for  rabbits,  237  —  Cow-manure,  237 

—  Asafoetida,  238  —  Kansan  method  of  protecting  trees  from 
rabbits,  238  —  To  remedy  the  injury  done  by  mice,  rabbits,  and 
squirrels,  241. 

Ground  Squirrel  or  Spermophile  Bemedies 241 

Moles 242 

Prairie-dogs 242 

Woodchucks  or  Ground-hogs 243 

Pocket-gophers 243 

Wolves  and  Coyotes 243 

Muskrats 243 

Pestiferotis  Birds 243 

Bird  poisons,  243  —  Poison  for  English  sparrows,  244  —  To  pro- 
tect fruits  from  birds,  244  —  To  protect  newly  planted  seeds,  244 


XVl  cox  TEXTS 

PAGES 

—  To  protect  corn  from  crows,  245  —  To  protect  young  chickens, 

245. 
Mosquitoes  ............     245 

Ki'ro.sfne  for  nufstiuitoes,  24') — Fishes  available  for  destruction 

of  uios<iuit«)  hirvii',  24() — lliliernating  uios(iuitoes,  24(3  —  Rules 

for  nioscpiito  rxtennination  anil  prevention,  247. 
The  House- Fly 249 

The  typhoid  tly,  or  house-tty,  241)  — Control,  250. 
Slime  on  runds 251 


CHAPTER   XV 

FiNoirinKs  and  Germicides  for  Plant  Diseases       .         .         ,      252-258 
I*rartires       ............     252 

Destroying  affected  parts,  252  —  Rotation  of  crops,  253  —  Steri- 
lizing by  steam,  253. 

Substances 253 

Bordeau.x  mixture,  253  —  Aminoniacal  copper  carbonate,  255  — 
Copper  carbonate.  255  —  Corrosive  sublimate,  255  —  Formalin, 
25C  —  Lime,  250 — Lime-sulfur,  256  —  Potassium  sulfid,  258  — 
Resin -sal -sod  a  sticker,  258  —  Sulfate  of  copper,  258  —  Sulfate  of 
iron,  258  — Sulfur,  258. 


chaptp:r  XVI 

Plant  Diseases      ..........      259-285 

Certain  General  or  Unclassijied  Diseases 260 

Dainping-<jff,  2<50  —  CEdema  or  dropsy,  260  —  Smut  of  cereals, 

200  —  Storage  rots,  262. 
Diseases  of  the  Different  Plants  or  Crops 262 

Alfalfa,   262  —  Almond,    263  —  Apple,    263  —  Apricot,    265  — 

A.sparagus.  265— Barley,  265  —  Bean,  265  — Bean,    Lima,   265 

—  Beet,  266  —  Blackberry,  266  —  Brussels  sprouts,  266  — Cab- 
bage, 266  — Carnation,  267  —  Caulitiower,  267  — Celery,  267  — 
Cherry,  267  -  Chestnut,  268  —  Chry.santhemum,  268  — Corn,  . 
268  — Cotton,  269  —  Cranberry,  260— Cucumber,  270  — Currant, 
270  —  Ginseng,  270  —  Golden-seal,  271  —  Gooseberry,  271  — 
Grape,  271  —  Hollyhock,  273  — Lettuce,  273  —  Muskmelon,  274 

—  Nectarine,  274  — Nursery  stock,  274  — Oats,  274  — Onion,  274 

—  Pea,  276  —  Peach,  275  —  Pear,  277  —  Plum,  279  —  Potato,  279 

—  l*umpkin,  280  — Quince,  280  — Radish,  280  — Raspberry,  281  — 


CONTENTS  xv!i 

PAGES 

Rice,  281  — Rose,  281  — Spinach,  281  — Strawberry,  282  — Sweet- 
potato,    282  —  Tobacco,    282  —  Tomato,    283  —  Violet,    283  — 
Wheat,  283. 
Seed  and  Soil  Treatments 284 

CHAPTER   XVII 

Insecticidal  Materials  and  Practices 286-300 

General  Practices .     286 

Cleanliness,  286  —  Hand-picking,  286  —  Promoting  growth,  286 
Burning,  286  —  Banding,  286  —  Fumigation,  287  —  Fungous  dis- 
eases as  insecticides,  290. 

Insecticidal  Substances 290 

Arsenic,  290  —  Arsenicals,  291  —  Bait,  293  —  Bran-arsenic  mash, 
293  —  Bisulfid  of  carbon,  293  —  Carbolic  acid  materials,  293  — 
Criddle  mixture,  293  —  Distillate  emulsion,  294 —  Hot  water,  294 
—  Kerosene  emulsion,  294 —  Lime-sulfur,  294  —  Miscible  oils, 
297  —  Pyrethrum,  297  —  Resin  and  fish-oil  compounds,  298  — 
Soaps,  298-299  — Soda  and  aloes,  299  — Sulfur,  299  — Tangle- 
foot, 299  — Tar,  299  —  Tobacco,  299  —  White  hellebore,  300. 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

Injurious  Insects,  with  Treatment   ......      301-336 

General  or  Unclassified  Pests 301 

Angleworm,  301  —  Aphides,  301  —  Bag-worm,  301  —  Blister- 
beetle,  302  —  Brown-tail  moth,  302  —  Cutworm,  302  —  Flea- 
beetle,  303  —  Four-striped  plant-bug,  303  —  Gipsy-moth,  303  — 
May-beetle,  303  —  Mealy-bug,  303  — Nematode  root-gall,  303  — 
Red-spider  or  mite,  304  —  San  Jos^  scale,  304  —  Scale-insects, 
304  — Snails,  305  — White  ants,  305  —  Wire-worm,  305 
Insects  classified  under  the  Plants  they  chiefly  Affect  .  .  .  .  305 
Apple,  305  —  Apricot,  310  —  Asparagus,  310  —  Aster,  311  —  Bean, 
311  — Birch,  311  —  Blackberry,  311— Cabbage,  311  —Carrot, 
312— Cauliflow^er,  313  — Celery,  313  — Cherry,  313  — Chestnut, 
313  — Chrysanthemum,  313  — Clover,  313  — Corn,  314  — Cotton, 
316  — Cranberry,  317 —  Cucumber,  318  — Currant,  318  — Dahlia, 

319  —  Egg-plant,  319  —  Elm,  319  —  Endive,  320  —  Gooseberry, 

320  —  Grape,  320  —  Hollyhock,  322  —  House-plants,  322  — 
Lawns,  322  —  Lettuce,  322  — Melon,  322  —  Mushroom,  323  — 
Onion,  323  —  Orange  and  lemon,  323  —  Parsley,  324  —  Parsnip, 
324  — Pea,  324  —  Peach,  325  —  Pear,  326  —  Pecan,  327  —  Per- 


xviu  CONTENTS 


Simmon,  328  — Pineapple,  328  — Plum,  329  — Poplar,  321)  — Po- 
tato, 32i)— Privet  or  Prim,  330  — Quince,  330  — Radish,  330  — 
Hiuspberry,  330  —  Rhubarb,  331  —  Rose,  331— Squash,  331  — 
StniwlK-rry,  332  —  Sugar-cane,  333  —  Sumac,  334  —  Sweet-potato, 
3;S4— Tobacco,  335  —  Tomato,  335—  Violet,  335— Wheat,  33G 

—  Willow,  330. 

CHAPTER    XIX 

Live-Stock  Rules  and  Records  ......      337-364 

Determining  the  Age  of  Farm  Animals 337 

Cattle,  337  — Sheep,  338— Swine,  339— Horses,  339. 
Gestation  and  Incubation  Figures        .......     342 

Number  of  young  at  birth.  343  — Number  of  eggs  in  brood,  343. 
Other  Characteristics 344 

Average  temperatures  of  farm  animals,  344  —  The  pulse  of  farm 

animals,  344  —  Period  of  heat,  344  —  Quantity  of  blood  in  the 

bodies  of  farm  animals,  345. 
Temperatures  for  Cold  Storage  of  Animal  Products  ....     345 
Advanced  Registry 346 

Schedule  of  charges  for  supervising  records  of  cows,  348  —  Hol- 

stein-Friesian  records,  349  —  Ayrshire  records,  350  —  Guernsey 

records,  351 — Jersey  records,  354. 
Fast  Horse  Records 357 

Trotters,  358  —  Pacers,  358  —  Fastest  records  for  one  mile,  358 

—  Fastest  records  for  two  miles,  359  —  Fastest  records  for  three 
miles,  359  —  Fastest  records  for  four  miles,  359  —  Fastest  records 
for  five  miles,  359  —  Fastest  records  for  six  miles,  359  —  For  ten 
miles,  359  —  For  eighteen  miles,  359  —  For  twenty  miles,  360  — 
For  thirty  miles,  360  —  For  thirty-two  miles,  360  —  For  fifty 
miles,  360  —  For  one  hundred  miles,  360  —  For  decades,  300. 

Profit-find- Loss  Figures 360 

Profit  or  loss  in  dairy  cows,  360 — Profit  or  loss  in  fattening 
steers,  362  —  In  fattening  sheep,  362  —  In  fattening  swine,  362. 

Coic-testing  Associations 362 

Apparatus  required,  364  —  Value  of  cow-testing  associations  in 
Virginia,  364. 

CHAPTER   XX 

PoriLTRY 366-382 

Standard  Weights  of  Poultry  in  Poiinds 366 

Descriptive  Score-Card  for  Standard  Poultry 367 


CONTENTS  xix 

PAGES 

Eggs 368 

Scoring  and  judging  one  dozen  eggs,  368  —  Students'  score-card 
for  a  dozen  eggs,  369. 

Rules  for  Machine  Incubation 370 

Feeding 372 

Cornell  ration  for  egg-production,  372  —  Relation  of  food-con- 
sumption to  egg-production,  372. 

Preparing  Fo%ds  for  Market  by  Bleeding 374 

Care  of  Feathers  and  Eggs 375 

Feathers,  375  —  General  care  of  eggs,  375  —  Preserving  eggs,  376. 

Parasites  of  Fowls 377 

Hen  louse,  377  —  Chicken  mite,  377  —  Scaly  leg,  378  —  Deplum- 
ing scabies,  378—  Hen  fleas,  378  —  Chicken  tick,  378. 
Sample  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  Exhibition  of  Poultry     .        .     378 
Outline  for  Critical  Examination  of  a  Poultry  Farm         =        .        .     381 


CHAPTER   XXI 

Exhibiting  and  Judging  Live-Stock.     Market  Grades  .         .      383-408 
General  Rules  and  Regulations  governing  Exhibits  of  Live-Stock      .     383 

Score- Cards  for  Farm  Animals 392 

Draft-horse,  392  —  Light-horse,  393  —  Students'  card  for  propor- 
tions of  horse,  .395  —  Beef -cattle  (female),  395  —  Beef-cattle 
(bull),  397  —  Dairy-cattle,  398  — Mutton  sheep,  399  —  Breeding- 
sheep,  401  —  Fat-hog,  402  —  Bacon-hog,  404. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades 404 

Beef,  404  — Veal,  405  — Mutton  and  lamb,  406  — Pork,  406  — 
Swine,  407. 

CHAPTER   XXII 

Computing  the  Ration  for  Farm  Animals        ....      409-428 

Computing  by  Energy  Values 409 

Computing  on  Basis  of  Quality  and  Quantity  of  Milk        .         .        .     410 
Computing  the  Balanced  Ration  by  the  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards    .    413 

The  Feeding  Standards 414 

Feeding  standards  per  day  and  1000  lb.  live  weight,  414  —  Per 
day  per  head,  415  —  Proteid  requirements  for  cattle,  sheep,  and 
swine,  416  —  Average  weights  of  different  feeding  stuffs,  417  — 
Sample  rations,  417. 
Composition  Tables .        .        .     419 


XX  CONTENTS 

rAGE? 

Composition    tables,    410 — Digestion    tables,   424  —  Fertilizing 
constituents,  426. 


CHAPTER    XXTII 

P^xTKRN'AL  Parasites  of  Animals ,      429-441 

Handling  the  Cattle -tick  or  Texas-fever  Tick 429 

Dijxs  for  cattle-ticks,  their  preparation  and  use,  420  —  Method  of 
spraying,  483  —  Disinfectant  for  ticks  in  infested  stables,  434  — 
Eradication  of  ticks  by  rotation  of  fields,  435. 

Other  External  Parasites  of  Farm  Animals 434 

Lime-and-sulfur  dips,  434  —  Nicotine  solutions,  434  —  Commer- 
cial dips,  430  —  Crude  oil  emulsion,  43()  —  Lice  powder,  4'.]Ct — ■ 
Cresol  disinfecting  soap,  4;}H  —  The  kinds  of  parasites  (cattle, 
437  ;  horse,  430  ;  sheep,  440;  swine,  441). 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

Milk  and  Milk  I^roducts  ;    Dairy  Farms  ....      442-472 

Composition  of  Milk 442 

Composition  of  cow's  milk,  442  —  Average  composition  of  milk 
of  various  kinds,  443  —  Average  composition  of  typical  cow's 
milk,  443 — The  milk  of  different  breeds,  444  —  Milk  solids  of 
different  breeds,  444  —  Ash  in  cow's  milk  and  its  products,  444  — 
Mineral  constituents  in  milk.  444 —  Variation  in  average  compo- 
sition of  574  samples  of  market  butter  .samples,  445  —  Nutrients 
and  energy  in  one  pound  of  food  materials  as  compared  with 
milk,  445  —  Average  composition  of  milk  products  and  other 
food  materials,  44(5. 

Milk,  Butter,  and  Cheese  Tests 446 

Babcock  test  for  butter-fat,  440  —  Computing  total  solids,  447  — 
Test  for  acid,  447 — Test  for  boiled  milk,  448  —  The  lactometer 
test  for  specific  gravity,  448  —  Test  for  boric  acid  or  borax,  440 

—  Test  for  formaldehyde  iti  milk,  450  —  Standardizing  milk,  450 

—  Butter  moisture-test,  451  —  Salt  in  butter,  453  —  Salt  in  cheese, 
453  —  Over-run  in  buttfM'-making,  454  —  Spoon-test  for  oleomar- 
parin  and  renovated  butter,  455  —  Moisture  in  cheese,  455  — 
Babcock  test  for  fat  in  cheese,  456 — Casein  in  milk,  466 —  Wis- 
consin curd-test,  457. 

Propagation  of  Starter  for  Butter- Making  and  Cheese-Making  .        .     458 


CONTENTS  XXI 

PAQES 

Farm  Butter- Making 458 

Bitter  milk  and  cream,  459  —  Why  butter  will  not  "  come,"  460 
—  Old  cream  makes  poor-flavored  butter,  461 —  White  specks  in 
the  butter,  461  — Mottled  butter,  461  — Effect  of  feed  on  butter- 
fat,  461. 

Butter  from  Whey 461 

Milk^  Butter,  and  Dairy-farm  Scores 462 

Score-card  for  market-milk,  402  —  Butter  score-card,  463  — 
Cheese  score-card,  464  —  University  of  Wisconsin  score-cards,  465. 

Butter  Classifications  and  Grades 465 

Definitions,  465  —  Grades,  465  —  Specials,  465  —  Extras,  466  — 
Seconds,  466  —  Thirds,  467  —  No.  1  packing  stock,  467  —  No.  2 
packing  stock,  467 — No.  3  packing  stock,  467. 

Dairy  Establishment  Scores  and  Bules 467 

Score-card  for  production  of  sanitary  milk,  467  —  Milk  inspec- 
tion of  farm  dairies,  469  —  Rules  for  the  production  of  clean 
milk,  471  —  Sanitary  inspection  of  city  milk  plants,  472. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

Construction,  Farm  Engineering,  Mechanics           .         .         .      473-503 
Silos 473 

Least  number  of  dairy  cows  for  silos  of  given  diameters,  473  — 
Feeding  capacity  of  silos,  473  (Approximate  quantity  of  silage 
required  per  day  —  Necessary  diameter  of  silos  for  feeding  given 
numbers  of  cows) — Other  silo  figures,  476  (Weight  of  silage- 
capacity  of  cylindrical  silos) . 

Barn  Figures 477 

Wire  Fence 477 

Dimensions  of  1-,  2-,  3-,  4-acre  lots  and  fence  required  to  inclose 
them,  478  —  Gauges,  sizes,  and  weights  of  plain  wire,  479  —  Barb- 
wire,  479  —  Galvanized  coiled  spring-steel  wire,  479  —  Rods  of 
fence  required  for  fields  of  different  sizes,  480. 
Tensile  Strengths  of  Bopes  .        ........     481 

Tile  Draining 481 

Number  of  feet  of  tile  per  acre,  481— Limit  of  size  of  tile  to 
grade  and  length,  481  —  Number  of  acres  drained  by  given  sizes 
of  tile,  482  —  Price-list  of  tile,  483  — Cost  of  laying  tile,  483  — 
Drainage  points,  484  —  Don'ts  in  land  drainage,  484. 

Boad-Drags 485 

Use  of  the  King  road-drag,  485  — The  split-log  road-drag,  487. 


xxii  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Data  on  Water 489 

Kules,  481)  —  Feet-head  and  pressure,  481)  —  Pressure  and  feet- 
head,  41)0 — EijuivalenUs  for  moving  water,  41)0 — Foot-loss  of 
water  through  i)ii)es  by  gravity,  491 —  Friction-loss  of  water  in 
pipes  (pounds),  492  — Friction-head  (feet),  493  —  Barometric 
pressure  at  different  altitudes  as  affecting  pumps,  494. 

WindmiU  Fifjures 494 

Windmills  for  pumping,  494  —  Power  of  mill,  495  —  Speed  of 
mill,  49G  —  Loadmg  and  speed,  497  —  Sizes  and  cost  of  circular 
reservoirs  for  irrigation  by  windmills,  497  —  Cost  of  nulls,  498. 

Machinery  and  Motors 498 

Widths  of  belting,  498  —  Size  and  speed  of  pulleys  or  gears,  498 
—  Calculated  capacity  of  piston  pumps,  499  —  Power  required  to 
operate  triplex  pumps,  500 —  Horse-power  required  to  rai.se  water 
to  different  heights,  501  —  Horse-power  of  steel  shafting,  501  — 
Electric  appliances  on  the  farm,  502  —  The  motor  power  of  a 
stream,  502  —  Hydraulic  rams,  503  —  Hot-air  engines,  503. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

Mason  Work.     Cements,  Paints,  Glues,  and  Waxes        .         .      504-615 

Building  or  Mason'^s  Cement ;  Gravel  and  Pitch        ....     504 
Approximate  estimates  of  mason-work,  504  —  Floors,  borders, 
walks,  and  foundations,  505. 

Mending  Cements 507 

Cements  for  iron,  507  —  Boiler  cements,  507  —  Tar  cement,  508 
—  Copper  cement,  508  —  Fire-proof  or  stone  cement,  508  — ■ 
Earthenware  cement,  508  —  Cement  for  glass,  508  —  Sealing 
cements,  508. 

Paints  and  Protective  Compounds 509 

Home-made  washes  for  fences  and  outbuildings,  509  —  Fire-proof 
paint,  509  —  For  damp  walls,  609 — Water-proofing  paint  for 
leather,  510  —  For  cloth  for  pits  and  frames,  510  —  For  paper, 
610  —  To  prevent  metals  from  rusting,  510  —  To  prevent  rusting 
of  nails,  hinges,  etc.,  510— To  remove  rust,  511  —  Amount  of 
paint  required  for  a  given  .surface,  511. 

Olues 511 

Liquid  glue,  511  —  Flower  gum,  511  — Gum  for  labels  and  speci- 
mens, 512. 

Waxes  for  Grafting  and  for  Covering  ]Vounds 512 

Common  resin  and  beeswax  waxes,  612  —  Alcoholic  wax,  513  — 


CONTENTS  XXlll 

PAGES 

Pitch  wax,  513  —  Waxed  string  and  bandages,  513  —  Covers  for 
wounds,  514. 

CHAPTER   XXVII 

Computation  Tables 516-542 

Tables  of  Begular  American  Weights  and  Measures  .         .        .  516 

Avoirdupois  weight,  516  —  Troy  or  jewellers',  516  —  Apothe- 
caries', 516  —  Comparative  weights,  517  —  Dry  measure,  517  — 
Liquid  measure,  517  —  Apothecaries'  fluid  measure,  517  —  Line 
or  linear  measure,  517  —  Surveyors'  or  chain  measure,  518  — 
Square  measure,  518  —  Surveyors'  square  measure,  518  —  Solid 
or  cubic  measure,  518  —  Paper  and  book  denominations,  519. 

Metric  Weights  and  Measures 519 

Weight,  519  —  Capacity,  520  —  Length,  520  — Surface,  620  — 
Cubic,  520  —  Equivalents  in  metric  and  American  measures,  521. 

Money  Tables 521 

English  money,  521  —  French,  522  —  German,  522  —  Dutch,  522 
—  Italian,  522  —  Spanish,  522  —  Russian,  522  —  Austrian,  522  — 
Monetary  units  of  American  countries,  522  —  Other  money 
equivalents,  523  —  Money  table,  524  —  Legal  rates  of  interest, 
524. 

Wage-Tables 526 

Day  wages,  526-527  —  Month  wages,  526. 

Thermometer  Scales 527 

Miscellaneous  Measures^  Weights^  and  Estimates       ...  528 

Measures  and  dimensions  of  many  kinds,  528  —  Weights  of 
various  varieties  of  apples  per  bushel,  629  —  Dried  fruit  and 
cider,  529  —  Various  estimates,  529  —  To  find  bushels  in  bins, 
530  —  To  find  tons  of  hay  in  mow  or  stack,  530  —  To  figure  cost 
of  hay  by  the  ton,  530. 

Capacities  of  Pipes  and  Tanks 531 

Quantity  of  water  held  by  pipes  of  various  sizes,  531  —  Number 
of  gallons  in  circular  tanks  and  wells,  531  —  Approximate  con- 
tents of  cylinders,  531  —  Gallons  in  square-built  tanks,  532. 

Legal  Weight  of  the  Bushel 533 

List  of  products  for  which  legal  weights  have  been  fixed  in  but 
one  or  two  states,  533,  540  —  Legal  weights  (in  pounds)  per 
bushel  in  the  United  States,  534  —  Other  articles,  540  —  Legal 
weights  of  seeds  and  grains  in  Canada,  540. 

Government  Townships 641 


XXIV  CONTENTS 

CHAl'lKR    XXVIII 

PAGES 
COLLECTINO    AND    PRESERVING     SPECIMENS     FOR    CaRINETS    OR    EXHIBI- 
TION      Perftmery      Labels 543-558 

Collecting  and  SUthng  Samples  of  Soil 543 

Samples  of  Seeds  and  Grains 544 

Collecting  and  Pn  serving  I'lants  for  Ilrrharia             ....  545 
Preserving,    Printing,   and   Imitating   Flowers  and    Other  Parts  of 

Plants 546 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects         .                           .         .                  .  551 

Making  Perfumery  at  Home 551 

The  Presentation  of  Fruits  for  Exhibition  Purposes    ....  552 
vSix  Canadian  recipes,  552  —  A  California  method,  550. 

Labels 556 

Jars  for  Specimens 558 

CHAPTER    XXIX 

Directories  559-567 

Institutions  and  Agencies  making  for  a  better  Enrol  Life  .         .          .  559 
Agricultural  and  Forestry   Colleges,   Srhools,  and  Experiment  Sta- 
tions in  Canada 561 

Agricultural  C<dleges  and  Experiment  Stations  in  the  United  States  .  561 

Forestry  Schools  in  the  United  States 564 

North  American  Veterinary  C<dleges  and  Departments       .         .         .  565 

Home  Ecroiomic  Institutions  and  Departments 566 

Institutions  teaching  Landscape  Architecture  {or  Landscape  Garden- 
ing) of  College  Grade       ...                  567 


FARM  AND  GARDEN  RULE-BOOK 


FARM  AND  GARDEN  RULE-BOOK 


CHAPTER   I 
The  Weather 

The  fanner  lives  with  the  weather.  Therefore  he  should  under- 
stand it ;  and  he  should  be  able  to  follow  the  indications  of  the  weather 
maps,  and  should  be  provided  with  good  thermometers  and  barometers 
of  his  own. 

It  is  important  that  the  thermometer  should  indicate  the  tempera- 
ture correctly,  and  for  this  one  must  rely  on  the  maker.  Most  reli- 
able instrument-makers  place  the  firm  name  on  their  instruments  as 
a  guarantee  of  accuracy.  When  purchasing,  it  is  therefore  well  to 
see  that  the  instrument  bears  the  name  of  the  maker.  A  reUable 
thermometer  of  the  ordinary  pattern  costs  $1  to  $3,  depending  on 
the  size  and  style  of  the  case.  Probably  the  most  satisfactory  instru- 
ment for  farm  use  is  "  Six's  "  pattern  of  self-registering  maximum 
and  minimum  thermometers.  This  instrument  is  but  little  larger 
than  the  ordinary  thermometer,  and  arranged  with  two  scales,  one  of 
which  shows  the  highest  and  the  other  the  lowest  temperature  since 
the  instrument  was  "  set."  To  "  set "  the  thermometer,  the  small 
steel  index  in  the  tube  is  pulled  down  to  the  end  of  the  column  by  a 
magnet  that  accompanies  the  instrument.  The  current  temperature 
is  indicated  by  this  instrument  in  the  same  way  as  by  the  ordinary 
thermometer.  Thermometers  that  cost  from  25  ^  to  50  ^  are  usually 
inaccurate  through  a  part  of  the  scale. 

The  same  rule  as  to  maker  should  be  observed  in  the  purchase  of 
an  aneroid  barometer,  although  there  are  probably  fewer  worthless 
barometers  on  the  market  than  worthless  thermometers.  A  good 
aneroid  barometer  costs  S 10  to  $  15,  depending  on  the  size  and  make. 
As  these  instruments  depend  for  accuracy  on  the  mechanical  con- 
struction, the  cheaper  grades  are  usually  unsatisfactory.     A  pocket 

B  1 


Library 


2  THE    WEATHER 

aneroid  barometer  (about  the  size  of  a  watcli)  costs  about  $12. 
These  instruments  are  arranged  to  determine  elevations  as  well  as  to 
give  weather  indications. 

Mercurial  barometers  are  more  expensive,  costing  S25  to  S40.  As 
the  mercury  in  the  column  of  a  mercurial  barometer  changes  its 
length  with  changes  of  temperature  just  as  the  column  of  mercury 
does  in  a  mercurial  thermometer,  it  is  necessary  to  correct  the  read- 
ing at  each  observation.  Tables,  giving  the  amount  to  be  added  or 
subtracted  from  the  reading  for  each  degree  of  temperature,  should 
be  secured  when  the  instrument  is  purchased. 

Thermometers  should  be  exposed  in  the  shade,  and  where  there  is 
a  free  circulation  of  air.  Barometers  should  not  be  exposed  to  full 
sunshine  for  any  great  length  of  time.  Any  convenient  place  in  the 
house  will  give  proper  exposure  for  barometers. 

How  to  use  the  Weather  Map 
(Weather  Bureau,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

The  first  impression  of  a  student  of  the  weather  maps,  as  they  pre- 
sent their  seemingly  endless  forms  and  combinations  of  the  temperature 
and  pressure  lines,  is  often  one  of  confusion.  This  feeling  is  likely 
to  be  attended  by  one  of  discouragement,  and  the  impulse  to  abandon 
the  task  of  seeking  an  underlying  plan  is  more  powerful  with  many 
persons  than  the  incentive,  which  depends  upon  curiosity,  to  know 
what  it  all  really  means. 

The  storm-tracks. 

The  storms  of  the  United  States  follow,  hoTvever,  year  after  year  a 
series  of  tracks,  not  capricious,  but  related  to  each  other  by  very  well- 
defined  laws. 

The  i^ositions  of  these  tracks  have  been  determined  carefully  for 
the  United  States  by  studies  made  in  the  Forecast  Division  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  on  the  long  series  of  maps  that  have  been  made  during 
the  past  twenty  years.  The  track  that  the  central  point  of  a  high  area 
or  that  the  center  of  a  storm  follows  in  passing  over  the  country  from 
west  to  east  is  laid  down  on  individual  charts,  these  are  collected  on 
a  group  chart,  and  from  this  the  average  track  i)ursued  can  be  readily 
described.     The  chart  herewith  (see  fig.  1)  shows  the  general  result  of 


THE    WEATHER  MAP 


4  THE    WEATHER 

a  study  of  tracks  of  storms  in  the  United  States.  It  indicates  that, 
in  general,  there  are  two  sets  of  tracks  running  westerly  and  easterly, 
one  set  over  the  northwestern  boundary,  the  Lake  region,  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  Valley ;  the  other  set  over  the  middle  Rocky  Mountain  dis- 
tricts  and  the  (lulf  States.  Each  of  those  is  double,  with  one  for  the 
"  highs  "  and  one  for  the  "  lows."  Furthermore,  there  are  lines  cross- 
ing from  one  main  track  to  another,  showing  how  storms  pass  from  one 
to  the  other.  The  transverse  broken  lines  show  the  average  daily 
nio\oniont.  On  the  chart  the  heavy  lines  all  belong  to  the  tracks  of 
tlie  "  highs,"  and  the  lighter  lines  to  the  "  lows."  Let  us  trace  them 
somewhat  in  detail.  A  "  high  "  appearing  on  the  California  coast 
may  cross  the  mountains  near  Salt  Lake,  and  then  pass  directly  over 
the  belt  of  the  Gulf  States  to  the  Florida  coast ;  or  it  ma\''  move  farther 
northward,  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  State  of  Washington,  up 
the  Columbia  River  Valley,  then  turn  east,  and  tinally  reach  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  The  paths  are  determined  by  the  laws  of  the  general 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  configuration  of  the  North 
American  continent.  This  movement  of  the  "  highs "  from  the 
middle  Pacific  coast  to  Florida  or  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  is  con- 
fined to  the  summer  half  of  the  year  —  April  to  September,  inclusive. 
In  the  winter  months,  on  the  other  hand,  the  source  of  the  "  highs  " 
is  different,  though  they  reach  the  same  terminals.  In  the  months 
Octolier  to  March,  inclusive,  many  "  highs  "  enter  the  United  States 
near  the  one  hundred  fiftieth  meridian  and  move  south  along  the 
Rocky  Mountain  slope  into  the  southern  circuit,  and  thus  reach  the 
South  Carolina  coast ;  or  else  they  turn  more  abruptly  eastward  and 
move  in  the  northern  circuit  over  the  Lakes  to  Newfoundland.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  the  art  of  forecasting  is  to  decide  which  of  these  paths 
will  1)0  pursued  and  the  probable  rate  at  which  the  movement  will  take 
l)lace. 

The  weather  map. 

The  daily  maps  of  the  Weather  Bureau  show  stations  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  that  make  telegraphic  reports  of  the  weather  each 
day  at  8  a,  m.  and  8  p.  m.,  seventy-fifth  meridian  time.  The  reports 
consist  of  observations  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer,  the  veloc- 
ity and  direction  of  the  wind,  amount,  kind,  and  direction  of  move- 
ment of  clouds,  and  amount  of  rain  or  snow,  and  the  8  a.  m.  reports 


WEATHER  INDICATIONS  5 

are  furnished  to  nearly  one  hundred  stations  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
for  use  in  the  preparation  of  maps  and  bulletins. 

On  the  weather  maps  solid  lines,  called  isobars,  are  drawn  through 
points  that  have  the  same  atmospheric  pressure,  a  line  being  drawn 
for  each  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  the  height  of  the  barometer.  Dotted 
lines,  called  isotherms,  are  drawn  through  points  that  have  the  same 
atmospheric  temperature,  a  line  being  drawn  for  each  ten  degrees  of 
temperature.  Heavy  dotted  lines  are  sometimes  used  to  inclose  areas 
where  decided  changes  in  temperature  have  occurred  during  the  pre- 
ceding twenty-four  hours.  The  direction  of  the  wind  at  each  station 
is  indicated  by  an  arrow  which  flies  with  the  wind.  The  state  of  the 
weather  —  clear,  partly  cloudy,  cloudy,  rain,  or  snow  —  is  indicated  by 
symbols.  Shaded  areas  are  used  on  the  maps  issued  at  Washington, 
and  at  several  stations,  to  show  areas  within  which  precipitation  in 
the  form  of  rain  or  snow  has  occurred  during  the  preceding  twelve 
hours.  The  tabular  data  give  details  of  maximum  and  minimum 
temperatures,  and  24-hour  temperature  changes,  wind  velocities,  and 
amount  of  precipitation  during  the  preceding  twenty-four  hours.  The 
text  printed  on  the  maps  presents  forecasts  for  the  state  and  the  sta- 
tion, and  summarizes  general  and  special  meteorological  features  that 
are  shown  by  the  Unes,  symbols,  and  tabulated  data. 

The  weather  indications. 

The  centers  of  areas  of  low  barometric  pressure,  or  general  storms, 
are  indicated  on  the  map  by  the  word  "  low,"  and  the  centers  of 
areas  of  high  barometric  pressure  by  the  word  "  high."  The  gen- 
eral movement  of  "  lows  "  and  "  highs  "  in  the  United  States  is  from 
west  to  east,  and  in  their  progression  they  are  similar  to  a  series  of 
atmospheric  waves,  the  crests  of  which  are  designated  by  the  "  highs  " 
and  the  troughs  by  the  "  lows."  These  alternating  "  highs  "  and 
"  lows  "  have  an  average  easterly  movement  of  about  six  hundred  to 
seven  hundred  miles  a  day.  The  "  lows  "  usually  move  in  an  easterly, 
or  north  of  east,  direction,  and  the  "  highs  "  in  an  easterly,  or  south 
of  east,  direction. 

In  advance  of  a  "  low  "  the  winds  are  southerly  or  easterly,  and 
are,  therefore,  usually  warmer.  When  the  "  low  "  passes  east  of  a 
place,  the  wind  shifts  to  westerly  or  northwesterly  with  lower  tempera- 
ture.    The  eastward  advance  of  "  lows  "  is  almost  invariably  preceded 


6  THE     WE  A  TIIER 

and  attended  by  precipitation  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow,  and  their 
passage  is  usuall}'  followed  by  clearing  weather.  The  temperature  on 
a  given  parallel  west  of  a  "low"  may  be  reasonably  lookeil  for  on 
the  same  parallel  to  the  east  when  the  "low"  has  passed,  and  when 
the  night  is  clear  anil  there  is  but  little  wind,  frost  is  likely  to  occur 
along  and  north  of  an  isotherm  of  40  .  A  "low"  is  generally 
followed  by  a  "high,"  which  in  turn  is  followed  by  another  "low." 

By  bearing  in  mind  the  usual  movements  of  "lows"  and  "highs" 
and  the  general  conditions  referred  to  that  attend  them,  coming 
weather  changes  may  be  frequently  foreseen.  "Lows"  often  move 
south  of  east  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, and  then  change  direction  to  north  of  east.  "  Lows  "  of  tropi- 
cal or  subtropical  origin  often  move  in  a  westerly  direction  to  oui 
south  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  and  then  recurve  to  the  northeastward. 
The  centers  of  "  lows  "  do  not  as  a  rule  cross  isothemis,  but  generally 
follow  the  general  trend  of  the  isothermal  lines.  Cold  waves  are 
always  accompanied  by,  and  forerun,  "  highs." 

When  isotherms  run  nearly  east  and  west,  no  decided  changes  in 
temj)erature  are  likely  to  occur.  When  isotherms  directly  west  of  a 
l)hice  incline  from  northwest  to  southeast,  the  temperature  will  rise; 
when  from  northeast  to  southwest,  the  temperature  will  fall. 

Southerly  to  easterly  winds  prevail  west  of  a  nearly  north  and  south 
line  pa.ssing  through  the  middle  of  a  "  high,"  and  also  east  of  a  like 
line  passing  though  the  middle  of  a  "  low."  Northerly  to  westerly 
winds  occur  west  of  a  nearly  north  and  south  line  i)assing  through  the 
middle  of  a  "  low,"  and  also  east  of  a  similar  line  passing  though  the 
middle  of  a  "  high." 

An  ab-sence  of  decided  and  energetic  "  lows  "  and  "  highs  "  indicates 
that  existing  weather  conditions  will  continue  until  later  maps  show 
a  change,  which  usually  appears  in  the  west. 

Weather  Bureau  Forecasts 

Forecasts  of  the  weather  expected  during  the  ensuing  thirty-six 
hours  are  i-ssued  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  daily  at  about 
10  A.M.  and  10  p.m.  and  are  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  country 
by  telegraph,  tcli^phone,  mail,  and  by  means  of  flag  and  whistle  signals. 

Nearly  all  telephone  companies  cooperate  or  are  willing  to  cooperate 


WEATHER  FLAGS  AND   SIGNALS  7 

with  the  Weather  Bureau  in  making  the  information  available  to  the 
public  in  general.  It  is  thus  possible  to  obtain  the  official  weather 
forecast  by  calling  the  central  exchange  of  almost  any  telephone  one 
may  be  using. 

Signals  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 
Flag  Signals  (Fig.  2) 

W  k  k'  h 

Fig.  2.  —  United  States  flag  signals. 

No.  1,  square  white  flag,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  stationary  tem- 
perature. 

No.  2,  square  blue  flag,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  stationary  tem- 
perature. 

No.  3,  square,  white  above,  blue  below,  alone,  indicates  local  rain, 
stationary  temperature. 

No.  4,  triangular  black,  refers  to  temperature. 

No.  5,  square  white,  with  black  center,  cold  wave. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  warmer. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  warmer  weather,  rain  or  snow. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  colder  weather,  rain  or  snow. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  warmer  weather  with  local  rains. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  colder  weather  with  local  rains. 

No.  1,  with  No.  5  below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  cold  wave. 

No.  2,  with  No.  5  below  it,  indicates  wet  weather,  cold  wave. 

\Vhistle  Signals 

The  warning  signal,  to  attract  attention,  will  be  a  long  blast  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  seconds'  duration.  After  this  warning  signal 
has  been  sounded,  long  blasts  (of  from  four  to  six  seconds'  duration) 
refer  to  weather,  and  short  blasts  (of  from  one  to  three  seconds'  dura- 
tion) refer  to  temperature ;  those  for  weather  to  be  sounded  first. 


8  THE    WEATHER 

Blasts  Indicate 

One  long Fair  weather. 

Two  long Rain  or  snow. 

Three  long Local  rains. 

One  short Lower  temperature. 

Two  short Higher  temperature. 

Three  short Cold  wave. 

Interpretation  of  Coml^i nation  Blasts 

One  long,  alone Fair  weather,  stationary  temperature. 

Two  long,  alone Rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 

One  long  and  short     ....  Fair  weather,  lower  temperature. 

Two  long  and  two  short  .     .     .  Rain  or  snow,  higher  temperature. 

One  long  and  three  short     .     .  Fair  weather,  cold  wave. 

Three  long  and  two  short    .     .  Local  rains,  higher  temperature. 

By  repeating  each  combination  a  few  times,  with  an  interval  of  ten 
seconds  between,  possibilities  of  error  in  reading  the  forecasts  will  be 
avoided,  such  as  may  arise  from  variable  winds,  or  failure  to  hear  the 
warning  signal. 


Canadian  signals  (Fig.  3) 


^f  * 


12  3  4 

Fig.  3.  —  Canadian  storm  waniiuf^s. 

No.  1,  gale  at  first  from  an  east-        No.  3,  heavy  gale  at  first  from 

erly  direction.  an  easterly  direction. 

No.  2,  gale  at  first  from  a  west-        No.  4,  heavy  gale  at  first  from 

erly  direction.  a  westerly  direction. 

The  night  signal  corresponding  to  Nos.  1  and  3  is  a  red  light. 
Night  signal  corresponding  to  Nos.  2  and  4  is  a  white  light  above  a 
red  light. 


ATMOSPHERIC  EDDIES  9 

Barometer  and  Wind  Indications 

(W.  M.  Wilson) 

The  mercurial  barometer  is  the  instrument  used  for  all  observations 
when  great  accuracy  is  required,  but  an  aneroid  barometer  is  more 
convenient,  less  liable  to  injury,  and  will  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

Attention  need  not  be  given  to  the  legends  fair,  changeable,  stormy, 
etc.,  that  usually  appear  on  the  face  of  the  instrument,  because 
changes  in  pressure  are  much  more  important  indications  of  approach- 
ing weather  than  the  actual  pressure  at  a  given  time. 

To  forecast  the  weather  accurately,  the  force  and  direction  of  the 
wind  should  always  receive  equal  consideration  with  the  changes  of 
pressure  as  indicated  by  the  barometer. 

The  following  general  statements  may  aid  in  showing  the  relation  of 
wind,  pressure,  and  weather :  — 

The  atmosphere  may  be  compared  to  an  ocean  of  air  that  rests 
upon  the  earth  just  as  the  water  rests  upon  the  bed  of  the  oceans. 
There  are  great  currents  of  air  in  the  atmosphere,  just  as  there  are 
great  currents  or  rivers  of  water  in  the  oceans. 

Storms  are  eddies  in  the  atmosphere,  and  float  along  in  the  currents 
or  rivers  of  air  very  much  like  the  eddies  often  seen  floating  on  the 
surface  of  a  river. 

All  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  except  the  southern  part  of 
Florida,  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  great  river  of  air  that  flows  from  west 
to  east  around  the  world  with  the  north-pole  at  the  center.  It  is 
called  the  circumpolar  whirl.  And  as  the  storms  in  this  latitude 
are  eddies  in  the  north-circumpolar  whirl,  they  float  along  from  west 
to  east  in  the  current  of  this  river  of  air. 

The  air  always  whirls  about  the  center  of  every  storm-eddy  in  the 
same  direction  —  counter-clock- wise  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
clock-wise  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Therefore,  if  a  storm-eddy  in 
the  latitude  of  the  United  States  is  approaching,  the  winds  will  first 
be  from  a  southerly  direction,  and  when  the  center  of  the  storm  has 
passed,  the  wind  will  come  from  a  northerly  direction. 

If  the  center  of  the  storm  passes  north  of  the  observer,  the  wind  wiU 
change  from  S.E.  to  S.,  then  to  S.W.,  and  finally  to  W.  or  N.W.  as 
the  storm  passes  on  its  way  eastward. 

If  the  center  of  the  storm  passes  south  of  the  observer,  the  wind 


10  THE    WEATHER 

will  start  in  from  the  S.E.  and  gradually  "  back  "  to  the  N.E.,  then 
to  the  X.  and  finally  to  the  X.W. 

To  locate  the  center  of  the  storm,  stand  with  your  face  squarely 
to  the  wind,  and  extend  your  arms  from  your  sides.  Your  right  hand 
will  then  point  in  the  direction  of  the  center  of  the  storm.  For  exam- 
ple, if  one  faces  a  wind  from  the  south,  his  extended  right  hand  will 
point  toward  the  west ;  if  one  faces  a  west  wind,  his  extended  right  hand 
will  point  north. 

A  study  of  the  daily  weather  maps,  printed  in  many  daily  papers, 
will  be  of  much  help  in  becoming  familiar  with  the  movements  of  these 
storm-eddies. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  center  of  the  storm-eddy 
is  always  less  than  at  a  distance  from  the  center;  therefore,  as  the 
storm  approaches,  the  pressure  will  decrease  and  the  barometer  will 
fall.  Thus  a  falling  barometer  indicates  the  approach  of  a  storm- 
eddy,  and  the  direction  of  the  wind  will  give  approximately  the 
location  of  the  center. 

If  the  barometer  is  falling  and  the  wind  square  from  the  south,  the 
indications  are  that  the  storm  is  approaching  from  the  west  and  will 
probably  pass  near  the  observer. 

If  the  barometer  is  falling  and  the  wind  from  the  southwest,  the 
center  of  the  storm  will  probably  pass  north  of  the  observer. 

If  the  barometer  is  falling  and  the  wind  N.E.,  the  center  of 
the  storm  is  approaching  from  the  southwest,  and  will  probably 
pass  south  of  the  observer.  If  the  barometer  is  rising  and  the  wind 
S.W.  to  W.,  the  center  of  the  storm  will  pass  north  of  the  observer,  and 
clearing  weather  follow  soon. 

The  following  barometer  and  wind  table  is  condensed  from  Pro- 
fessor Garriott's  more  extended  compilation,  and  is  the  result  of  many 
years  of  study  and  experience :  — 

Barometer  steady ;  wind,  S.W.  to  N.W. ;  fair  weather,  with  slight 
changes  in  temperature  for  1  or  2  days. 

Barometer  falling  slowly;  wind,  S.W.  to  N.W. ;  warmer,  with  rain 
in  24  to  36  hours. 

Barometer  falling  rapidly;  wind,  S.W.  to  N.W. ;  warmer,  with  rain 
in  18  to  24  hours. 

Barometer  falling  slowly ;    wind,  S.  to  S.E. ;   rain  within  24  hours. 


BAROMETER  INDICATIONS  IX 

Barometer  falling  rapidly ;  wind,  S.  to  S.E. ;  wind  increasing  in 
force  with  rain  within  12  to  24  hours. 

Barometer  falling  slowly ;  wind,  S.E,  to  N.E. ;  rain  in  12  to  18  hours. 

Barometer  falling  rapidly ;  wind,  S.E.  to  N.E. ;  increasing  wind 
and  rain  in  12  hours. 

Barometer  falling  rapidly ;  wind,  E.  to  N.E. ;  in  summer  rain 
probable  within  24  hours;  in  winter  rain  or  snow  with  increasing 
winds,  probably  continuing  24  to  48  hours. 

Barometer  rising  slowly ;  wind,  S.  to  S.W. ;  clearing  and  cooler 
within  a  few  hours,  and  probably  continued  fair  weather  for  several 
days. 

Barometer  rising  rapidly ;  wind,  S.  to  W. ;  clearing  and  cooler. 
In  winter  cold  wave  probable. 

Should  the  barometer  continue  low  when  the  sky  becomes  clear, 
expect  more  rain  within  24  hours.     (C.  L.  Prince.) 

Rapid  changes  in  the  barometer  indicate  early  and  marked  changes 
in  the  weather.     (E.  B.  Garriott.) 

If  the  thermometer  and  barometer  rise  together, 
It  is  a  very  sure  sign  of  coming  fine  weather. 

If  the  barometer  falls  two  or  three  tenths  of  an  inch  in  four  hours, 
expect  a  gale  of  wind.     (C.  L.  Prince.) 

In  summer,  when  the  barometer  falls  suddenly,  expect  thunder- 
storms; if  it  does  not  rise  again  when  the  storm  ceases,  there  will 
be  several  days  of  unsettled  weather. 

The  barometer  falls  lower  for  high  winds  than  for  heavy  rains. 

Popular  "Weather  Signs  (Wilson) 

When  it  is  evening,  ye  say,  It  will  be  fair  weather :  for  the  heaven 
is  red.  And  in  the  morning,  It  will  be  foul  weather  to-day :  for  the 
heaven  is  red  and  lowering.  —  Matthew,  xvi,  2,  3,  Rev.  version. 

When  ye  see  a  cloud  rising  in  the  west,  straightway  ye  say.  There 
Cometh  a  shower ;  and  so  it  cometh  to  pass.  —  Luke,  xii,  54,  Rev. 
version. 

After  fine,  clear  weather  the  first  signs  in  the  sky  of  coming  changes 
are  usually  light  streaks,  curls,  wisps,  or  mottled  patches  of  white, 
distant  clouds,  which  increase  and   are    followed  by  an  overcasting 


12  THE    WEATHER 

of  murky  vapor  that  grows  into  cloudiness.  Usually  the  higher  and 
more  distant  the  clouds  seem  to  be,  the  more  gradual  but  general 
the  coming  change  of  weather  will  prove.  —  Filzroy. 

If  cirrus  clouds  form  in  fine  weather  with  a  falling  barometer,  it 
is  almost  sure  to  rain.  —  Howard. 

If  cirrus  clouds  dissolve  and  appear  to  vanish,  it  is  an  indication  of 
fine  weather.  —  Garriutt. 

When  cloud  streamers  point  upward,  the  clouds  are  falling  or  de- 
scending, and  rain  is  indicated  ;  when  cloud  streamers  point  downward, 
the  cloutls  are  ascending,  and  dry  weather  is  indicated.  —  Garriott. 

Clouds  flying  against  the  wind  indicate  rain. 

If  in  hot  weather  two  strata  of  clouds  appear  to  move  in  opposite 
directions,  thunderstorms  are  indicated. 

Well-defined  cumulus  clouds  forming  a  few  hours  after  sun-rise, 
increasing  toward  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  decreasing  toward  even- 
ing are  indicative  of  settled  weather ;  if  instead  of  subsiding  in  the  even- 
ing, leaving  the  sky  clear,  they  keep  increasing,  they  indicate  wet 
weather.  —  Jenyms. 

Birds  fly  high  in  fair  weather  and  low  in  foul  weather.  The  expla- 
nation is  that  in  fair  weather  the  barometer  is  usuall}''  high,  the  air 
hea\ier  and  denser  and  capable  of  sustaining  a  given  weight  at  a 
greater  elevation  than  when  less  dense  during  the  passage  of  a  storm. 

Frosts,  and  Methods  of  Protection 

How  frost  forms  (Wilson). 

In  the  day,  plants  usually  receive  more  heat  from  the  sun  than  they 
give  off  (radiate),  and  consequently  become  warmer;  but  at  night  the 
])roccss  is  reversed,  and  they  radiate  more  heat  than  they  receive  and 
thus  grow  colder.  When  the  surface  of  a  plant  has  lost  (radiated) 
sufficient  heat  to  cause  its  temperature  to  fall  to  32°  or  below,  frost 
forms.  Any  condition  that  causes  increased  radiation  will  increase  the 
liability  of  frost,  and  conversely,  whatever  checks  radiation  or  supplies 
a<lditional  lioat  to  the  air  will  tend  to  ward  off  frost. 

A  clear  night  is  favorable  for  frost  because  radiation  or  loss  of  heat 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth  proceeds  most  rapidly  under  a  clear  sky. 
Clouds  act  as  a  blanket.  The  heat  rays  do  not  penetrate  them  easily, 
})Ut  are  reflected  back  toward  tlie  earth,  thus  checking  radiation  by 
confining  the  heut  to  the  strata  of  air  between  the  earth  and  the  clouds. 


FROST  18 

A  quiet  air  is  favorable  for  frost.  Radiation  proceeds  more  rapidly 
from  the  surface  than  from  the  air  above  the  surface.  This  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  a  thermometer  placed  in  the  grass  on  a  quiet,  clear 
night  will  read  10°  or  even  15°  below  one  suspended  three  or  four  feet 
above  the  surface.  If  there  is  much  wind,  this  difference  will  not  occur, 
because  the  wind  mixes  the  colder  air  at  the  surface  ^vith  the  warmer 
air  above,  thus  giving  a  more  imiform  temperature. 

A  moderately  dry  atmosphere  is  favorable  for  frost,  because  when  the 
air  is  humid  only  a  slight  fall  of  temperature  will  occur  before  the 
temperature  at  which  dew  begins  to  form  {dew-point)  is  reached,  and 
when  the  vapor  in  the  air  begins  to  change  into  water  (dew),  the  heat 
that  was  used  originally  to  change  the  water  into  vapor  is  no  longer 
required  and  is  said  to  be  liberated,  and  tends  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  or  at  least  to  retard  the  fall. 

The  effect  of  the  liberation  of  heat  in  the  process  of  the  formation  of 
dew  may  be  appreciated  when  it  is  said  that  the  heat  added  to  the  air 
in  the  formation  of  a  pint  of  dew  is  sufficient  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  more  than  five  pints  of  water  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  when  the  dew-point  is  10°  or  more 
above  the  frost-point,  32°,  a  frost  is  not  likely  to  occur,  but  if  the 
dew-point  approaches  32°,  frost  is  likely  to  occur. 

In  a  cranberry  marsh  near  Mather,  Wis.,  during  the  season  of  1906, 
Cox  found  that  the  minimum  temperature  averaged  8.2°  below  the 
temperature  of  the  dew-point  as  observed  the  previous  evening,  and 
in  extreme  cases  the  difference  was  as  much  as  20°  and  22°.  On 
a  marsh  near  Berlin,  Wis.,  on  the  night  of  September  27,  1906,  at 
11  P.M.  the  dew-point  was  found  to  be  43°,  yet  frost  began  to  form 
in  parts  of  the  marsh  at  1  p.m.  when  the  temperature  had  fallen  to 
28°;  frost  became  general  at  2  a.m.,  and  the  following  morning  a 
minimum  temperature  of  24.4°  was  observed. 

The  dew-point  of  the  previous  evening  cannot,  therefore,  be  regarded 
as  a  safe  guide  for  the  minimum  temperature  of  the  following  night. 

The  chief  value  of  dew-point  observations  of  the  previous  evening 
appears  to  be  in  the  fact  that  they  indicate  the  temperature  at  which 
the  heat  from  the  condensing  vapor  will  begin  to  be  poured  into  the 
air,  and  if  this  temperature  is  much  above  the  frost-point,  this  addition 
of  heat  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  check  the  fall  of  temperature 
and  thus  ward  off  a  frost. 


14  THE    WEATHER 


To  find  the  dew-point. 


The  dew-point  is  determined  by  the  wet-  and  dry-bulb  thermometer 
(or  psychromctcr).  The  instrument  may  he  made  as  follows  :  For  the 
frame  find  a  board  eighteen  inches  long,  two  inches  wide,  and  one  half 
inch  thick ;  bore  a  hole  in  one  end  so  as  to  hang  the  apparatus  on  a 
nail  when  not  in  use.  Get  two  all-glass  thermometers  with  c\'lindrical 
bulbs,  and  the  degrees  Fahrenheit  engraved  on  the  stem.  Cover  the 
bulb  of  one  thermometer  with  a  thin  piece  of  cotton  cloth,  fastening  it 
securely  by  a  thread.  When  this  cloth  covering  is  wet  with  water  and 
exposed  to  evaporation  in  the  air,  it  constitutes  the  "  wet-bulb  ther- 
mometer " ;  the  other  thermometer  has  no  covering  on  its  bulb,  is  not 
wet  at  any  time,  and  constitutes  the  "  dry-bulb  thermometer." 

The  range  of  temperature  of  the  open  air  in  the  following  table  is 
from  36°  Fahrenheit  to  75°  Fahrenheit,  and  of  depressio.i  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  wet  bulb,  from  1°  to  13°  Fahrenheit,  giving  a  range  in 
both  directions  of  sufficient  scope  for  the  needs  of  northern  farmers 
during  the  growing  season.  The  temperature  of  the  dry-bulb  (or  open- 
air  temperature)  is  found  in  the  left-hand  column  of  the  table ;  the 
difference  in  degrees  between  the  readings  of  the  dry-  and  wet-bulb 
is  entered  in  the  horizontal  line  at  the  top,  from  1°  to  13°.  To  find 
the  temperature  of  dew-point  at  any  observation,  find  in  left-hand 
column  the  temperature  of  dry-bulb,  then  follow  the  horizontal  line 
opposite  that  figure  till  you  reach  the  perpendicular  column  under  the 
difference  between  dry- and  wet-bulb  readings,  and  the  figures  at  the 
meeting  of  these  two  columns  will  give  the  temperature  of  dew-point. 
For  example,  suppose  the  dry-bull)  stands  at  65°  and  wet-bulb  at  55° : 
the  difference  is  10°.  Pass  across  the  page  in  the  line  of  65°  till  you 
intersect  the  vertical  column  under  10°,  and  you  read  47°,  which  is  dew- 
point  under  these  conditions.  If  the  dew-point  is  10°  or  more  above 
frost-point  (32°  Fahrenheit),  there  is  little  danger  of  killing  frost;  but 
if  the  dew-point  is  less  than  10°  above  32°,  danger  may  be  apprehended. 
If  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  intersection  of  43°  —  1°  and  67°  —  13°, 
of  the  table,  this  may  be  called  the  danger  line,  and  all  dew-point 
temperatures  below  this  line  indicate  danger  of  frost,  and  are  printed 
in  itnlics.  This  margin  of  10°  is  taken  because  the  temperature  on  a 
still  night  will  often  sink  several  degrees  below  the  first  dew-point, 
and    the   temperature  of  the   air  at   five  feet  above   the   ground  is 


TO   DETERMINE    THE  DEW-POINT 


15 


several  degrees  above  that  at  ground  level.  For  these  reasons 
combined,  a  margin  of  10°  may  be  safely  assumed  as  the  limit  of 
safety. 

Table  for  determining  the  temperature  of  dew-point  from  the  readings  of  the  dry-bulb 
and  wet-bulb  thermometers  (Hazen) 


si 

C8  O 

Depression  of  the 

Wet- 

BULB  ThERMOMETEI 

I 

ii 

1° 

2° 

3' 

4= 

6° 

6° 

7° 

8° 

9° 

10° 

11° 

12° 

13° 

75° 

74 

72 

71 

69 

68 

66 

64 

63 

61 

59 

57 

56 

54 

74° 

73 

71 

70 

68 

67 

65 

63 

62 

60 

58 

56 

54 

52 

73° 

72 

70 

69 

67 

66 

64 

62 

61 

59 

57 

55 

53 

51 

72° 

71 

69 

68 

66 

64 

63 

61 

59 

58 

56 

54 

52 

50 

71° 

70 

68 

67 

65 

63 

62 

60 

58 

56 

55 

53 

51 

48 

70° 

69 

67 

66 

64 

62 

61 

59 

57 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

69° 

68 

66 

64 

63 

61 

59 

58 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

68° 

67 

65 

63 

62 

60 

58 

57 

55 

53 

51 

49 

46 

44 

67° 

66 

64 

62 

61 

59 

57 

55 

54 

52 

50 

47 

45 

43 

66° 

64 

63 

61 

60 

58 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

65° 

63 

62 

60 

59 

57 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

45 

42 

41 

64° 

62 

61 

59 

57 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

43 

40 

63° 

61 

60 

58 

56 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

44 

42 

41 

38 

62° 

60 

59 

57 

55 

53 

52 

50 

48 

45 

43 

39 

37 

61° 

59 

58 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

41 

38 

35 

60° 

58 

57 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

45 

43 

39 

36 

33 

59° 

57 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

40 

38 

35 

32 

58° 

56 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

45 

42 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

57° 

55 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

40 

37 

35 

31 

28 

56° 

54 

53 

51 

49 

47 

44 

42 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

26 

55° 

53 

52 

50 

48 

46 

43 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

25 

54° 

52 

50 

49 

46 

44 

42 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

27 

23 

53° 

51 

49 

47 

45 

43 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

25 

20 

52° 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

41 

38 

36 

33 

30 

27 

23 

18 

51° 

49 

47 

45 

43 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

25 

21 

16 

50° 

48 

46 

44 

42 

41 

38 

36 

33 

30 

27 

23 

19 

14 

49° 

47 

45 

43 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

25 

21 

17 

11 

48° 

46 

44 

42 

41 

38 

36 

33 

30 

27 

23 

19 

14 

9 

47° 

45 

43 

40 

37 

35 

32 

29 

25 

22 

17 

12 

6 

46° 

44 

42 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

27 

24 

20 

15 

10 

3 

45° 

43 

40 

37 

35 

32 

29 

26 

18 

13 

7 

-1 

44° 

42 

4i 

39 

36 

33 

30 

27 

24 

20 

16 

11 

4 

-5 

/ 

40 

37 

35 

32 

29 

26 

23 

19 

14 

8 

1 

-9 

43° 

4i 

39 

36 

34 

31 

28 

25 

21 

17 

12 

6 

-2 

-16 

42° 

40 

38 

35 

S3 

29 

26 

23 

19 

15 

9 

3 

-6 

-22 

41° 

39 

36 

34 

31 

28 

25 

22 

17 

13 

7 

0 

-11 

-32 

40° 

38 

35 

33 

30 

27 

24 

20 

16 

11 

4 

-4 

-16 

-74 

39° 

37 

34 

32 

29 

26 

22 

18 

14 

8 

2 

-8 

-23 

38° 

36 

33 

31 

28 

24 

21 

17 

12 

6 

-1 

-12 

-35 

37° 

35 

32 

29 

26 

23 

19 

15 

10 

4 

-5 

-17 

36° 

34 

31 

28 

25 

22 

18 

13 

8 

1 

-8 

-25 

16  THE    WEATHER 

Methods  of  -protection  against  frost  (Wilson). 

Protection  against  frost  is  not  only  possible,  but  practicable.  The 
method  to  bo  employed  depends  on  the  kind  of  croj),  the  expense  its 
value  will  justify,  and  the  facilities  at  hand.  But  whatever  method 
is  chosen,  it  must  be  carried  out  systematically,  intelligently,  and  with 
thorouglmess  if  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

Progressive  cranberry  growers  resort  to  three  expedients  to  ward 
off  light  frosts,  aside  from  flooding,  which  is  practiced  in  the  spring  and 
autumn  and  also  when  exceptionally  severe  frosts  are  expected.  These 
methods  are  cultivation,  drainage,  and  sanding.  By  cultivating  the 
marsh  and  keeping  it  free  from  weeds,  moss,  and  other  vegetation,  the 
heat  from  the  sun  more  easily  penetrates  the  soil,  and  there  is,  there- 
fore, more  heat  to  be  given  off  when  needed  to  prevent  frost  during 
the  night.  Good  drainage  decreases  the  effect  of  cooling  by  evapora- 
tion, and  a  dry  soil  becomes  warmer  under  sunshine  than  a  wet  soil, 
and  therefore  radiates  heat  more  freely  into  the  air  at  night  when 
needed  to  ward  off  frost.  A  covering  of  sand  lowers  the  specific  heat 
of  the  soil,  and  thus  stores  up  a  large  amount  of  heat  during  the  day  to 
be  given  to  the  air  at  night.  In  the  Cape  Cod  marshes  it  is  the  prac- 
tice to  spread  about  half  an  inch  of  sand  over  the  surface  of  the  marsh 
each  year.  These  methods,  when  systematically  and  carefully  carried 
out,  are  usually  effective  in  warding  off  light  frosts  that  are  liable  to 
occur  between  early  .spring  and  autumn. 

Smudging  has  been  practiced  for  many  years  in  the  trucking  sections 
of  the  Southwest,  as  well  as  in  the  fruit-growing  districts  of  California 
and  Florida.  The  object  is  to  cover  the  garden  or  orchard  with  a 
thick  blanket  of  smoke  and  va]:)or,  with  a  view  to  checking  radiation. 
The  success  of  this  method  dei:)ends  upon  the  care  and  thoroughness 
with  which  it  is  carried  out.  The  cloud  of  vapor  or  smoke  must  cover 
the  garden  or  orchard,  and  be  dense.  A  thin  blanket  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient. The  fire  should  be  built  on  the  windward  side  of  the  orchard, 
and  such  material  used  as  damp  straw,  prunings,  manure. 

If  the  fire  burns  briskly,  it  may  be  sprayed  with  water  to  increase 
the  cloud  of  vapor. 

Portable  smudges  have  superseded  the  stationary  smudge  in  many 
places.  They  possess  the  advantage  of  being  moved  from  jilace  to 
place,  thus  overcoming  the  effect  of  a  change  of  wind,  which  often  reD- 


FROST  — PHENOLOGY  17 

ders  the  stationary  smudge  ineffective.  Any  sort  of  a  fire-box  that 
can  be  placed  on  a  stone-boat  or  sled  will  answer  the  purpose. 

The  most  effective  method,  and  the  one  now  practiced  by  the  large 
fruit-growers  of  Colorado  and  Cahfornia,  is  the  distribution  of  a  large 
number  of  small  fires,  about  forty  to  the  acre,  throughout  the  orchard. 
In  this  case  dependence  is  placed  in  the  direct  heat  given  off  by  the  fires 
as  well  as  in  the  cloud  formed  from  the  smoke.  Coal  is  the  fuel  most 
generally  used  in  California,  while  oil  is  coming  into  use  in  Colorado. 
When  coal  is  used,  it  is  the  practice  to  suspend  wire  baskets 
a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  containing  ten  to  twenty  pounds  of 
coal,  which  is  lighted  when  frost  threatens.  Forty  such  baskets 
will  raise  the  temperature  of  the  orchard  tliree  or  four  degrees. 
The  cost  depends  upon  the  price  of  the  fuel.  In  California  a  ton 
of  soft  coal  that  costs  $2.50  was  considered  sufficient  for  one  acre 
each  night. 

Some  orchardists  have  replaced  the  coal  baskets  with  oil  burners. 
This  method  is  more  expensive  to  install,  as  the  burners  are  more 
costly  than  the  baskets,  and  tanks  must  be  provided  for  the  storage  of 
the  oil ;  but  it  is  said  to  be  much  more  convenient,  and  quite  as  efficient. 
At  the  Hamilton  fruit  ranch,  near  Grand  Junction,  Col.,  the 
temperature  in  an  orchard  of  twenty  acres  was  maintained  at  33° 
by  the  use  of  oil  burners,  while  a  minimum  temperature  of  27° 
was  registered  in  surrounding  localities.  The  cost  of  the  protec- 
tion of  this  orchard  for  four  nights  when  frost  occurred  in  the  vicinity 
was  approximately  ten  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  crop.  Methods 
less  systematic  than  the  above  are  usually  disappointing.  (For 
another  discussion,  see  Paddock  and  Whipple,  "  Fruit-Growing  in  Arid 
Regions.") 

Phenology 

Phenology  (contraction  of  phenomenology)  is  that  science  which  con- 
siders the  relationship  of  local  climate  to  the  periodicity  of  the  annual 
phenomena  of  nature.  It  usually  studies  climate  and  the  progression  of 
the  seasons  in  terms  of  plant  and  animal  life,  as  the  dates  of  migrations, 
of  blooming,  leafing,  ripening  of  fruit,  defoliation,  and  the  like.  If 
observations  are  to  have  permanent  value,  they  must  be  taken  with  a 
definite  purpose.  The  particular  objects  of  phenological  obser- 
vations are  the  following :  — 
c 


18  THE    WEATHER 

1.  To  determine  the  general  oncoming  of  spring. 

2.  To  determine  the  fitful  or  varialjle  features  of  spring. 

3.  To  determine  the  epoch  of  the  full  activity  of  the  advancing 
season. 

4.  To  determine  the  active  physiological  epoch  of  the  year. 

5.  To  determine  the  maturation  of  the  season. 

6.  To  determine  the  oncoming  of  the  decline  of  fall. 

7.  To  determine  the  approach  of  winter. 

8.  To  determine  the  features  of  the  winter  epoch. 

9.  To  determine  the  fleeting  or  fugitive  epochs  of  the  year. 

Good  phenological  observations  upon  plants  should  satisfy  the  fol- 
lowing tests,  as  given  by  Hoffmann :  — 

1.  They  should  represent  as  broad  a  distribution  as  possible  of  the 
given  species,  selected  for  observation. 

2.  Ease  and  certainty  of  identifying  the  definite  phases  which  are 
to  be  observed. 

3.  The  utility  of  the  observations  as  regards  biological  questions, 
such  as  the  vegetative  periods,  time  of  ripening,  etc. 

4.  Representation  of  the  entire  vegetation  period. 

5.  Consideration  of  those  species  which  are  found  in  almost  all 
published  observations,  and  especially  of  those  whose  development  is 
not  influenced  by  momentary  or  accidental  circumstances,  as  is  the 
dandelion. 

The  epochs  of  vegetation  that  should  be  observed  for  most  pheno- 
logical purposes  are  these:  — 

1.  Upper  surface  of  the  leaf  first  visible  or  spread  open. 

2.  First  blossoms  open. 

3.  First  fruit  ripe. 

4.  All  leaves,  or  more  than  half  of  them,  colored. 

Typical  and  average  plants  should  always  be  selected  for  observa- 
tion, and  they  should  be  few  in  number.  A  dozen  well-selected  species 
will  afford  more  satisfactory  records  year  by  year  than  observations 
made  at  random  upon  a  great  variety  of  plants.  For  the  sudden  moods 
of  spring,  the  peach  and  dandelion  are  useful  for  observation,  but  such 
plants  —  those  which  respond  quickly  to  every  fitful  variation  of  the 


PHENOLOGY — RECORDS  19 

3arly  season  —  are  not  reliable  for  the   staple  records  of  the  years. 
Useful  plants  for  study  are  the  following:  — 

Apple.  Cultivated  Strawberry. 

Pear.  Lilac. 

Quince.  Mock  Orange  (Philaxklphus), 

Plum.  Horse  Chestnut. 

Sweet  Cherry.  Red-pith  Elder 

Sour  Cherry.  Common  Elder. 

Peach.  Flowering  Dogwood. 

Choke  Cherry.  Native  Basswood. 

Wild  Black  Cherry.  Native  Chestnuts. 

Japanese  or  Flowering  Quince.       Privet  or  Prim. 

Cultivated  Raspberry.  Red  Currant. 

Cultivated  Blackberry.  Cultivated  Grape. 

Climate  and  Crop  Production;  keeping  Records  (Wilson) 

Every  farmer  understands  that  a  very  intimate  relation  exists  be- 
tween climatic  conditions  —  the  average  temperature,  rainfall,  and 
sunshine  —  and  the  growth  of  plants  ;  but  not  all  farmers  appreciate 
the  full  significance  of  the  climatic  factor  in  crop  production. 

An  officer  of  a  state  college  of  agriculture  recently  asked  five  members 
of  the  faculty  to  assign  respective  values  to  the  three  main  factors 
affecting  the  average  yield  of  corn  under  the  climate  of  the  forty- 
second  parallel.  The  factors  considered  were  :  soil,  including  texture, 
fertility,  and  cultivation  ;  climate,  including  temperature,  rainfall,  and 
sunshine  ;  and  seed.  The  average  of  the  five  estimates  on  the  basis 
of  100  were  for  soil,  46 ;  climate,  36 ;  and  seed,  17.  Three  out  of  the 
five  gave  to  climate  a  value  of  40,  one  35,  and  one  25,  and  two  out  of 
the  five  gave  climate  and  soil  equal  values. 

If  these  estimates  are  near  the  truth,  it  becomes  apparent  that 
climate  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  important  a  factor  in  crop  pro- 
duction as  soil,  and  much  more  important  than  seed ;  yet  it  receives 
but  scant  attention  from  the  average  agriculturist,  probably  because 
climate,  unlike  soil  and  seed,  is  beyond  the  control  of  man. 

The  weather  is  a  variable  factor,  because  it  changes  from  day  to  day, 
from  week  to  week,  and  from  season  to  season.  But  climate  is  a  per- 
manent factor  ;   for  climate,  which  is  the  average  of  all  the  weather, 


20  THE    WEATHER 

does  not  change,  except  possil)ly  through  long  geological  periods. 
When  the  climate  of  a  locality  has  been  once  determined,  it  may  be 
counted  on  absolutely.  What  the  climate  is  for  this  generation  it  will 
be  for  the  next,  and  the  next,  so  far  as  we  can  see.  It  could  not  be  otlier- 
wise,  for  climate  in  tlie  large  is  the  result  of  the  sun's  heat,  modified 
by  the  topography  of  the  earth's  surface  —  the  mountains,  the  valleys, 
the  oceans;  and  "  so  long  as  the  sun  shines  with  his  accustomed 
vigor  and  the  hiUs  and  the  seas  abide  in  their  places,"  so  long  will 
the  climate  of  every  locality  remain  unchanged.  The  fact  that  crops 
now  arc  grown  successfully  in  what  are  considered  arid  regions,  and 
are  being  pushed  farther  and  farther  into  the  frosty  north,  has  been 
cited  in  support  of  the  contention  that  the  climate  is  changing  ;  but 
these  changes  in  the  area  of  successful  production  have  not  been 
brought  about  by  an  increase  of  rainfall  on  the  one  hand,  or  of 
temperature  on  the  other,  but  bj^  new  methods  of  cultivation  and 
seed  selection,  and  better  adaptation  of  human  ])ractices  to  natural 
conditions. 

We  may  rely,  therefore,  upon  the  permanency  of  the  climatic  factor 
in  crop  production.  The  weather  may  vary  by  a  small  margin  from 
year  to  year,  or  from  one  season  to  the  next,  but  the  average  tem- 
perature, rainfall,  and  sunshine  for  so  short  a  period  as  ten  years  will 
depart  so  little  from  the  true  normal  climate  that  the  departure  may 
be  neglected  in  actual  practice. 

Climatic  records  compiled  by  the  Weather  Services. 

As  it  requires  about  ten  years  of  careful  observation  to  determine 
approximately  the  average  or  normal  temperature  of  a  locality,  and 
perhaps  twenty  years  to  determine  the  normal  rainfall,  few  farmers 
would  feel  that  they  had  the  time  or  skill  to  devote  to  so  serious  an 
undertaking  ;  nor  is  it  necessary  that  they  should.  This  work  has  been 
done  already  in  the  United  States,  and  with  great  accuracy  and  care. 
The  Weather  Bureau  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
has  collected  and  tabulated  all  records  of  temi)erature  and  rainfall 
that  have  been  made  in  the  United  States.  Some  of  these  records 
cover  a  period  of  more  than  a  hundred  years,  many  of  them  more  than 
fifty  years,  and  the  work  still  is  going  on.  At  present,  observations 
are  being  made  at  about  4000  places.  With  this  number  of  records, 
distributed  more  or  less  evenly  over  the  entire  country,  it  is  possible 


WEATHER   RECORDS  21 

to  determine  very  accurately  the  normal  temperature  and  rainfall 
for  almost  any  locality  in  the  United  States. 

A  similar  system  is  in  operation  by  the  Canadian  Government,  and 
information  as  to  the  climate  of  almost  any  inhabited  locality  in  the 
Canadian  provinces  may  be  had  on  application  to  the  Director  of  the 
Canadian  Meteorological  Service,  Toronto. 

The  data  are  usually  compiled  by  months.  For  example,  the  normal 
temperature  and  rainfall  by  months  for  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  are  as  follows : 
Normal  or  average  temperature,  31  years  record :  January,  24°  ; 
February,  25°  ;  March,  32°  ;  April,  44°  ;  May,  57°  ;  June,  66°  ; 
July,  71°  ;  August,  68°  ;  September,  61°  ;  October,  50°  ;  November, 
38°  ;  December,  28°  ;  Annual,  47°.  Normal  or  average  precipitation 
in  inches  and  hundredths  of  inches,  including  melted  snow :  January, 
2.07  ;  February,  1.84  ;  March,  2.42  ;  April,  2.30  ;  May,  3.39  ;  June, 
3.73  ;  July,  3.51  ;  August,  3.06  ;  September,  2.89  ;  October,  2.96  ; 
November,  2.50  ;    December,  2.30  ;    Annual,  32.97. 

These  values  would  be  considered  approximately  correct  for  a  radius 
of  twenty  to  fifty  miles,  depending  principally  on  the  topography, 
whether  mountainous  or  level,  and  the  proximity  of  large  bodies  of 
water  and  the  prevailing  wind  direction.  It  is  recognized  that  there 
may  be  an  appreciable  difference  between  the  climate  of  a  valley  and 
thatof  an  adjacent  hill,  or,  on  account  of  differences  of  soil  character, 
between  one  farm  and  another  in  the  same  locality.  Such  local  va- 
riations are  usually  small,  although  important,  particularly  in  such 
matters  as  air  drainage  and  frost,  and  can  be  determined  only  by 
observations  made  on  the  spot.  The  averages,  compiled  by  the 
Weather  Bureau,  include  observations  made  on  hill-tops  as  well  as  in 
valleys,  and,  therefore,  represent  strictly  average  conditions.  They 
have  been  carefully  computed,  and  may  be  relied  upon  with  confidence. 

How  climatic  data  may  be  secured. 

The  Climatological  Service  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  is  organ- 
ized by  sections,  each  section  embracing  a  single  state,  except  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  smaller  states,  which  are  included  in  one  section. 
The  New  England  States  make  up  one  section  ;  also  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, and  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  work  of  each  section  is  under 
the  supervision  of  a  section  director,  in  whose  office  are  kept  all  records 
pertaining  to  his  section.     The  accompanying  list  gives  the  city  in 


22 


THE    WEATHER 


which  the  office  of  each  section  director  is  located,  and  the  section 
under  his  charge.  A  request  for  cHmatic  data  should  show  clearly 
(1)  the  locality  for  which  the  data  are  desired,  and  (2)  the  character 
of  the  data,  and  should  be  addressed,  Section  Director,  Local  Office, 
Weather  Bureau,  followed  by  the  appropriate  city  and  state :  — 


City 


Section 


Atlanta       .     . 

Georgia 

Atlantic  Citv 

New  Jersev 

Baltimore  .     . 

Maryland  and  Delaware 

Bismarck    .     . 

North  Dakota 

Boise      .     .     . 

Idaho 

Boston  .      .     . 

New  England 

Cheyenne   .     . 

Wyoming 

Chicago      .      . 

Illinois 

Columbia   .     . 

Missouri 

Columbus  .     . 

Ohio 

Denver        .     . 

Colorado 

Des  Moines 

Iowa 

Grand  Rapids 

Michigan 

Helena  .     .     . 

Montana 

Honolulu    .     . 

Hawaii 

Houston     .     . 

Texas 

Huron    .     .     . 

South  Dakota 

Indianapolis    . 

Indiana 

Ithaca    .     .     . 

New  York 

Jacksonville    . 

Florida 

Lincoln       .     . 

Nebraska 

Little  Rock 

Arkansas 

City 


Section 


Louisville Kentucky 

Milwaukee Wisconsin 

Minneapolis       ....  Minnesota 

Montgomery  Alabama 

Nashville Tennessee 

New  Orleans  Louisiana 

Oklahoma Oklahoma 

Parkersburg       ....  West  Virginia 

Philadelphia      ....  Pennsylvania 

Phoenix Arizona 

Portland Oregon 

Raleigh North  Carolina 

Reno Nevada 

Richmond Virginia 

Salt  Lake  City       .     .     .  Utah 

San  Francisco  ....  California 

San  Juan Porto  Rico,  W. 

Santa  Fe New  Mexico 

Seattle Washington 

Springfield Illinois 

Topeka Kansas 

Vicksburg Mississippi 


Probably  the  most  important  information  for  the  general  farmer 
concerning  the  climate  of  his  locality  is  the  average  temperature  and 
rainfall  by  months,  but  the  following  data  are  available  for  practically 
all  parts  of  the  United  States,  having  been  compiled  in  1906  and 
published  in  Bulletin  Q,  to  which  reference  should  be  made  when  mak- 
ing request  :  Temperature  by  months  ;  mean  or  average  ;  mean  of 
maxima  ;  absolute  maximum  ;  mean  of  minima  ;  absolute  minimum  ; 
highest  monthly  mean  ;  lowest  monthly  mean  ;  precipitation,  includ- 
ing melted  snow  ;  mean  or  average  ;  number  of  days  with  .01  inch 
(one  hundredth  of  an  inch)  or  more  ;  total  amount  for  the  driest  year  ; 
total  amount  for  the  wettest  year ;  dates  on  which  the  extreme  tem- 
peratures for  the  locality  occurred.  For  northern  states  the  dates 
are  given  generally  when  the  minimum  temperature  fell  to  -10°  (10° 
below  zero)  or  below,  and  the  maximum  rose  to  90°  or  above ;  for 
southern  states,  when  the  minimum  fell  to  32°  or  below,  and  the 
maximum  rose  to  95°  or  above. 


MAKING    THE   OBSERVATIONS  23 

Making  local  observations. 

The  value  of  climatic  information,  supplied  by  the  Weather  Bureau, 
may  be  enhanced  greatly  by  observations  of  temperature  and  rainfall 
made  on  the  farm,  particularly  if  made  in  connection  with  phenological 
observations  suggested  on  pages  17-19.  Such  a  record  is  a  valuable 
asset  to  a  farm,  and  its  value  increases  as  each  year's  record  is  added. 
A  suitable  equipment  need  not  be  expensive,  nor  the  work  made  la- 
borious. The  highest  and  lowest  temperature  may  be  obtained  at  a 
single  reading,  made  preferably  about  sunset,  by  use  of  Six's  pattern 
of  maximum  and  minimum  thermometers,  mentioned  on  page  1.  The 
average  of  the  two  thermometer  readings  gives  the  daily  mean. 
This  is  the  method  used  by  the  Weather  Bureau,  and  wiU  make  the 
record  strictly  comparable  with  any  data  obtained  from  that  source. 

A  serviceable  rain-gauge  may  be  constructed  by  the  use  of  any  vessel 
having  straight  sides.  A  tomato-can,  placed  two  feet  above  ground, 
and  fifty  feet  from  buildings  or  trees,  will  give  good  results.  The 
depth  of  the  water  caught  may  be  measured  with  an  ordinary  rule,  but 
to  make  the  record  comparable  with  those  made  by  the  Weather  Bureau, 
the  fractions  of  an  inch  should  be  reduced  to  decimals.  Perhaps  it 
would  be  better  to  make  a  rule  graduated  in  inches  and  tenths. 
Ten  inches  of  average  snow  will  make,  when  melted,  one  inch  of  water. 

A  convenient  method  for  recording  and  preserving  weather  obser- 
vations is  important.  A  book  is  preferable,  having  at  least  thirty-four 
ruled  lines.  Use  one  page  for  each  month.  Rule  the  page  into  eight 
columns,  leaving  ample  margin  on  the  right  for  phenological  notes. 
Beginning  at  the  left,  head  the  columns  as  follows  :  date  ;  highest  tem- 
perature ;  lowest ;  mean ;  rainfall ;  snowfall ;  wind  direction  (every 
farm  should  have  a  good  weather-vane) ;  weather;  phenology.  Enter 
each  day's  record  on  line  with  appropriate  date.  Under  phenology 
full  notes  should  be  made,  showing  the  condition  and  advancement  of 
the  various  crops,  for  here  is  the  point  of  contact  between  current 
weather  and  plant  growth.  All  this  may  be  combined  with  a  diary 
of  farm  work.  At  the  end  of  each  month  the  temperature  columns 
should  be  averaged  and  the  total  rainfall  set  down ;  and  when  these 
values  are  compared  with  the  normal,  the  importance  of  the  climatic 
factor  in  crop  production  will  be  more  fully  understood.  (For  ther- 
mometer scales,  see  Chap.  XXVII.) 


CHAPTER   II 


The  Elements  and  the  Soil 


The  mass  of  the  earth  (and  the  atmosphere)  is  at  present  assumed 
to  be  composed  of  certain  elementary  or  indivisible  substances,  and  of 
combinations  of  these  substances.  The  number  of  elements  now 
recognized  by  chemists  is  eighty-three.  The  names  of  these  elements, 
with  the  symbols  that  are  used  for  convenience  and  brevity  in  ex- 
pressing the  combinations  into  which  they  unite,  are  given  in  the 
table:  — 

The  elements  and  their  symbols 


Aluminum 

.     .     Al. 

Iron       .     . 

.     Fe. 

Antimony 

.     .     Sb. 

Krypton    . 

.     Kr. 

Argon    .     . 

.     .     A. 

Lanthanum 

.     La. 

Arsenic 

.     .     As. 

Lead      .     . 

.     Pb. 

Barium 

.     Ba. 

Lithium 

.     Li. 

Beryllium 

.     .     Be. 

Lutecium  . 

.     Lu. 

Bismuth     . 

.     Bi. 

Magnesium 

.     Mg. 

Boron    . 

.     B. 

Manganese     . 

.     Mn. 

Bromin 

.     Br. 

Mercury    .     . 

.     Hg. 

Cadmium 

.     Cd. 

Molybdenum 

.     Mo. 

Caesium 

.     Cs. 

Neodymium 

.     Nd. 

Calcium     . 

.     Ca. 

Neon      .     . 

.     Ne. 

Carbon 

.     C. 

Nickel    .     . 

.     .     Ni. 

Cerium 

.     Ce. 

Niobium     . 

.     Nb. 

Chlorin 

.     CI. 

Nitrogen     . 

.     N. 

Chromium 

.     Cr. 

Osmium      . 

.     Os. 

Cobalt 

.     Co. 

Oxygen 

.     0. 

Columbium 

.     Cb. 

Palladium 

.     Pd. 

Copper 

.     Cu. 

Phosphorus 

.     .     P. 

Dysprosium 

.     Dy. 

Phitimim    . 

.     Pt. 

Erbium 

.     Er. 

Potassium  . 

.     K. 

Europium 

.     Eu. 

Praseodymiun 

1 

.     Pr. 

Fluoriii 

.     F. 

Radium 

.     Ra. 

Gadolinium 

.     Gd. 

Rhodium    . 

.     Rh. 

Gallium 

.     Ga. 

Rubidium 

.     Rb. 

Germanium 

.     Ge. 

Ruthenium 

.     Ru. 

Glucinum 

.     Gl. 

Samarium 

.     Sm. 

Gold      .     . 

.     Au. 

Scandium  . 

.     Sc. 

Helium 

.     He. 

Selenium    . 

.     Se. 

Hydrogen 

.     H. 

Silicon   .     . 

.     Si. 

Indium 

.     In. 

Silver     .     . 

.     Ag. 

lodin     . 

.     I. 

Sodium 

.    .    n1 

Iridium 

.     Ir. 

Strontium 

.    .    Sr. 

24 

^        Library 

J 

m 

.  c 

;  fit«i^^ 

i  r^^^ ^ 

THE  ELEMENTS  IN  NATURE  25 


Sulfur S. 

Tantalum Ta. 

Tellurium Te. 

Terbium Tb. 

Thallium Tl. 

Thorium Th. 

Thulium Tm. 

Tin Sn. 

Titanium Ti. 


Tungsten W. 

Uranium U. 

Vanadium V. 

Xenon Xe. 

Ytterbium Yb. 

Yttrium Y. 

Zinc Zn. 

Zirconium Zr. 


Distribution  of  the  Elements 

Oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  some  of  the  rarer  elements  exist 
in  the  atmosphere  in  a  pure  or  free  state  as  well  as  in  combinations  in 
animal  and  plant  and  earthy  substances ;  but  most  of  the  elements  are 
present  in  nature  only  in  combination  with  other  elements.  The 
larger  number  of  the  eighty-three  known  elements  are  very  rare. 
Nearly  99  per  cent  of  the  earth's  crust  (including  the  water)  is  made 
up  of  eight  elements,  as  follows  (according  to  Clark) :  — 

Oxygen 47.02 

Silicon 28.06 

Aluminum 8.16 

Iron 4.64 

Calcium 3.50 

Sodium 2.63 

Magnesium 2.62 

Potassium 2.32 

No  other  element  is  estimated  to  contribute  as  much  as  1  per  cent 
to  the  composition  of  the  crust  of  the  globe.  Hydrogen  is  estimated 
to  comprise  .17  per  cent,  and  carbon  .12. 

The  atmosphere  is  a  mixture  (by  volume)  of  seventy-nine  parts  of 
nitrogen  and  twenty-one  parts  of  oxygen,  with  small  quantities  of 
argon,  carbon  dioxid,  vapor  of  water,  ammonia,  and  organic  gases  in 
addition. 

The  elements  essential  to  the  life  and  growth  of  plants,  so  far  as  known, 
are  ten:  calcium,  magnesium,  potassiimi,  phosphorus,  iron,  sulfur, 
from  the  soil;  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  from  tha  atmos- 
phere. Combinations  formed  by  the  vital  processes  of  plants  and 
animals  —  as  starch,  sugar,  acetic  acid  —  are  known  as  organic  com- 
pounds; all  others  are  inorganic  compounds.  The  different  elements 
making  up  a  compound  are  calculated  in  terms  of  their  atomic  weights. 

The  elements  of  which  plants  are  composed,  are  largely  oxygen,  car- 
bon, and  hydrogen.    The  younger  and  more  succulent  the  plant,  the 


26 


THE  ELEMENTS   AND    THE   SOIL 


greater  the  proportion  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  because  the  proportion 
of  water   is  greater. 

Ultimate  composition  of  a  wheat  plant  at  maturity,  containing  10  per  cent  mois- 
ture.     The  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  water  are  included  in  the  statement 

Carbon 42.87 

Hydrog'n 6.04 

Oxygen    ...           45.20 

Nitrogen 0.94 

Pota.s.siuni 0..3G 

Calcium        0.33 

Phosphorus 0.11 

Other  ash  constituents        4.09 

100.00 

Ultimate  composition  of  human  body.  The  proportion  of  C  varies  greatly  with  the 
amount  of  fat,  also  the  O  and  ash  to  a  less  extent.  The  statement  includes  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  of  the  water 


The  water  is  about  65  per  cent,  which  makes  the  dry-matter  in  the 
animal  much  less  than  in  the  mature  plant,  the  moisture  content  of 
which  is  shown  to  be  10  per  cent  in  the  preceding  table. 

The  Ash  and  Mineral  Parts  of  Animals  and  Plants 


When  a  plant  is  oven-dried,  the  free  or  uncoml)iii(Ml  water  passes  off. 
When  it  is  completeh''  burneel,  the  carl)on,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  most 
of  the  oxygen  are  driven  off.  What  remains  is  ash,  containing  the  mineral 
elements.  Incomplete  burning  of  ])lant  material  results  in  coals  and 
ash ;  the  coal  is  mostly  carbon.     Charcoal  is  carbon. 


COMPOSITION   OF  ANIMALS  AND   MAN 


27 


Mineral  elements  in  animal  bodies 
(Calculated  from  Results  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert) 


Ox 

Calf 

Sheep 

Lamb 

Pig 

Half 
fat 

Fat 

Fat 

Thin 

Half 
fat 

Fat 

Very 
fat 

Fat 

Thin 

Fat 

Fat 

Nitrogenous  matter 

Minerals 

Water 

Contentsof  stomach,  etc. 

% 
19.1 
16.6 

4.66 
51.5 

8.2 

% 
30.1 
14.5 

3.92 
45.5 

6.0 

% 

14.8 

15.2 

3.8 
63.0 

3.2 

% 
18.7 
14.8 

3.16 
57.3 

6.0 

% 
23.5 
14.0 

3.17 
50.2 

9.1 

% 
35.6 
12.2 

2.81 
43.4 

6.0 

% 
45.8 
10.9 

2.9 
35.2 

5.2 

% 
28.5 
12.3 

2.94 

47.8 
8.5 

% 
23.3 
13.7 

2.67 
55.1 

5.2 

& 

10.9 
1.65 

41.3 
4.0 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Minerals 
Phosphorus     .... 

% 

.803 

% 
.677 
1.281 
.037 
.146 
.094 
.017 
.013 

% 

.670 
1.177 
.048 
.171 
.109 
.015 
.016 

.488 
.944 
.034 
.144 
.090 
.026 
.021 

% 

.524 

.965 

.031 

.140 

.077 

.029 

.014 

% 

.454 

.846 

.029 

.123 

.072 

.024 

.012 

% 

.484 

.886 

.033 

.131 

.096 

.021 

.011 

% 
.492 
.915 
.031 
.138 
.076 
.018 
.016 

% 

.465 
.771 
.032 
.163 
.082 
.015 
.021 

% 
.286 

Calcium 

1.508 

.455 

Magnesium     .... 
Potassium 

.051 
.170 

.019 
.115 

Sodium 

.108 

.054 

.028 

.009 

Sulfur 

.015 

.012 

Live  weight,  lbs.       .     . 
Age 

1,232 
4yr. 

1,419 
4yr.. 

258.8 
9.5 
wk. 

97.6 
lyr. 

105.1 

3M 

yr. 

127.2 

IM 
yr. 

239.4 

m 

yr. 

84.4 

y2yr. 

93.9 

185.0 

Composition  of  ash  of  human  body  (Beaunis) 


Tissue 

Bone 

Calf 
Mus- 
cles 

Brain 

Liver 

Lungs 

Blood 

Milk 

Lymph 

Analyst 

Heintz 

Staffel 

Breed 

Oidt- 
mann 

C. 
Schmidt 

Verdeil 

Wilden- 
stein 

Dahn- 
hardt 

Sodium  chlorid      . 
Sodium  oxid     .     . 
Potassium  oxid 
Calcium  oxid 
Magnesium   oxid 
Ferric  oxid        .     . 
Chlorin 
Fluorin 

Phosphorus     pen- 
toxid         .     .     . 
Sulphur  trioxid 
Carbon  dioxid 
Silicic  oxid        .     . 
Potassium  chlorid 

37.58 
1.22 
1.66 

53.31 
5.47 

10.59 
2.35 

34.40 
1.99 
1.45 

48.13 
0.81 

4.74 

10.69 

34.42 

0.72 

1.23 

48.17 
0.75 

0.12 

14.51 
25.23 
3.61 
0.20 
2.74 
2.58 

50.18 
0.92 

0.27 

13.0 
19.5 
1.3 
1.9 
1.9 
3.2 

48.5 
1.4 

58.81 
4.15 

11.97 
1.76 
1.12 
8.37 
8.37 

10.23 

10.23 
1.67 
1.19 

10.73 

21.44 

18.78 
0.87 
0.10 

74.48 

10.35 
3.25 
0.97 
0.26 
0.05 
1.09 

8.20 

19.00 
2.64 

26.33 

28 


THE  ELEMENTS  AND    THE   SOIL 


Composition  of  the  cush  of  leading  farm  crops  (Snyder) 


Composition  op  100  Parts  of  the  Pure  Ash 

Seeds 

Dry- 
Mat- 

PXTKE 

Ash 

ter 

K,0 

NasO 

CaO 

MgO 

Fe,0, 

P.O5 

SO, 

SiO, 

Ci 

Wheat    .     .     . 

2.03 

30.24 

0.65 

3.50 

13.21 

0.60 

47.92 

0.73 

Oats  .... 

>> 

3.12 

17.90!  1.66 

3.60 

7.03 

1.18 

25.64 

1.79 

39.20 

0.94 

Barley    .     .     . 

^ « 

2.61 

20.92 

2.39 

2.64 

8.83 

1.19 

35.10 

1.80 

25.90 

1.02 

Rye   .... 

•i^ 

2.09 

32.10 

1.47 

2.94 

11.32 

1.24 

47.74 

1.28 

1.37 

0.48 

Corn       .     .     . 

1.45 

29.8 

1.10 

2.17 

15.52 

0.76 

45.61 

0.78 

2.10 

0.91 

Flax  .... 

p  s. 

3.67 

26.27 

o  oo 

9.61 

15.86 

1.11 

42.48 

0.88 

Clover    .     .     . 

as 

4.50  35.35  0.95 

6.40 

12.90 

1.70 

37.93 

2.40 

1.30 

1.23 

Peas  .... 

< 

2.73  43.10 

0.98 

4.81 

7.99 

0.83 

35.90 

3.41 

1.91 
0.65 

1.60 

Beans     .     .     . 

3.63 

41.48 

1.10 

4.99 

V.16 

0.46 

38.86 

1.80 

Fodders 

' 

Clover    .     ,     . 

^ 

7.02 

27.25 

0.80 

29.26 

8.32 

0.57 

10.66 

6.18 

Timothy      .     . 

6.82 

34.69 

1.83 

8.05 

3.24 

0.83 

11.80 

2.80 

32.17 

5.20 

Brome  grass    . 

08 

6.55  :27.65 

0.89 

7.59 

4.32 

1.83 

5.84 

4.37 

Corn       .     .     . 

a^ 

8.72 

27.18 

0.85 

5.70 

11.42 

0.85 

9.14 

40.18 



Straws 

2^ 

Flax  .... 

a  u 

2.86 

34.07 

4.37 

24.81 

15.04 

3.67 

6.24 

6.70 

Buckwheat 

^a 

6.15 

46.60 

2.20 

18.40 

3.60 



11.19 

5.50 

Pea    ...     . 

i^ 

4.80 

21.40 

5.70 

38.80 

7.20 

1.40 

7.10 

5.40 

Bean       .     .     . 

6.10 

32.70 

8.70 

25.30 

7.30 

1.70 

7.90 

5.50 

Wheat    .     .     . 

5.37 

13.65 

1.38 

5.76 

2.46 

0.61 

4.81 

67.50 

Oat    ...     . 

■k 

7.17 

26.42 

3.29 

6.97 

3.66 

1.20 

4.59 

3.20 

46.70 

4.40 

Barley    .      .     . 

5.35 

23.26 

3.54 

7.22 

2.58 

1.13 

4.24 

3.80 

51.00 

3.20 

Roots 

Potatoes      .     . 

24 

3.80 

60.00 

2.96 

2.64 

4.93 

1.10 

16.86 

6.50 

2.10 

3.40 

Sugar-beets      . 

15 

3.80 

53.10 

8.92 

6.10 

7.86 

1.14 

12.20 

4.20 

2.28 

4.80 

Turnips       .     . 

12 

8.00 

45.40 

9.84 

10.60 

3.69 

0.81 

12.71 

1.80 

5.00 

Chemical  Compounds 

The  chemist  uses  initials  (or  other  letters)  to  designate  the  elements, 
when  he  makes  a  formula  to  express  the  composition  of  any  compound  ; 
and  he  adds  a  figure  to  each  symbol  when  more  than  one  part  or  atom 
(by  atomic  weight)  enters  into  the  make-up  of  the  molecule.  Thus 
II.jO  represents  a  compound  in  which  the  molecules  are  two  parts 
hydrogen  and  one  part  o.xygen ;  in  common  language,  this  particular 
compound  is  known  as  water.  KoO  is  potash  (or  potassium  oxid) 
—  two  parts  potassium  and  one  part  oxygen.  Gypsum  or  land-plaster 
is  calcium  sulfate,  —  CaS04,  which  means  calcium  one  part,  sulfur 
one   part,  oxygen   four  parts.     Quartz   is  SiOa-     Quicklime  is  CaO. 


NATURE   OF  SOIL 


29 


Phosphoric   acid   is   P2O5.     Common   table   salt   is    NaCl    (sodium 
and  chlorin). 
Following  are  the  formulas  for  various  common  substances :  — 

Acetic  acid C2H4O2 

Ammonia NH3 

Aniline       NH^CCeHs) 

Arsenious  oxid     ....  AsjOa 

Carbon  dioxid     ....  CO2 

Carbonic  oxid      ....  CO 

Chloroform CHCI3 

Ferric  oxid  (iron  rust)   .     .  FejOa 

Ferrous  oxid FeO 

Hydrochloric  acid    .     .     .  HCl 

Mercuric  oxid      ....  HgO 

Nitrate  of  soda   ....  NaNOg 

Nitric  acid HNO, 


Nitric  oxid NO 

Nitric  peroxid      ....  NO2 

Nitrous  oxid N2O 

Saltpetre KNO3 

Starch CgHioOs 

Strychnine C21H22N2OJ 

Sugar,  cane CijHjjOn 

Sugar,  grape  or  glucose      .  CeHijOe 

Sulfate  of  potash      .     .     .  K2SO4 

Sulfuretted  hydrogen    .     .  HjS 

Sulfuric  acid   .....  H2SO4 

Sulfuric  oxid SO3 

Sulfurous  oxid'    ....  SO2 


The  Soil 

The  soil,  as  the  farmer  understands  it,  is  the  soft  tillable  covering  or 
epidermis  of  the  earth.  It  is  derived  primarily  from  disintegrated  rock, 
but  all  productive  soils  contain  organic  remains,  or  materials  derived 
directly  from  these  remains.  Some  soils,  as  those  in  swamps,  are  very 
largely  organic. 


Classification  of  soils  in  respect  to  origin  (Merrill) 


Sedentary 

IB 

^ 

J  [Transported 


I  Residual  deposits 
Cumulose  deposits 
CoUuvial  deposits 

Alluvial      deposits, 
including  the 

aqueo-glacial   . 

^olian  deposits  . 

Glacial  deposits  . 


I  Residuary  gravels,  sands,  clays,  wacke, 

I      laterite,  terra  rossa,  etc. 

j  Feat,    muck    and    swamp    or   palludal 

I      soils,  in  part. 

j  Talus    and     cliff    debris,    material     of 

I      avalanches. 

r  Modern  alluvium,   marsh  and  swamp 

J      deposits,  estuarian  clays.     Loess  and 

[      adobe  in  part. 

I  Wind-blown      material,       sand-dunes. 

I      Adobe  and  loess  in  part. 

(Morainal  material,  either  lateral,  ter- 
minal, or  ground  moraines,  drum- 
lins,  etc. 


Classification  of  soil  constituents 

Name 

1.  Gravel 

2.  Coarse  sand 

3.  Medium  sand        

4.  Fine  sand 

5.  Very  fine  sand 

6.  Silt 

7.  Clay^ 


(U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

Size  of  Particles 
(diameters  in  millimeters) 
2.0       to  1.0 
1.0      to  0.5 
0.5      to  0.25 
0.25    to  0.1 
0.1       to  0.05 
0.05    to  0.005 
0.005  to  0.0000 


30 


THE  ELEMENTS  AND    THE    SOIL 


Weight  of  noils. 

Soils  vary  widely  in  weight  according  to  their  composition  and  the 
size  of  the  particles.  Humus  soils  arc  the  lightest,  and  sanrl}''  soils  are 
the  heaviest.  Clay  soils  weigh  less  per  cu))ic  foot  than  aral^le  soils  or 
sandy  soils.  The  larger  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  a  cubic  foot 
of  soil,  the  less  it  weighs.  For  this  reason,  surface  soils  are  lighter,  as  a 
rule,  than  subsoils  (Stevenson). 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  dry  soil  is  given  by  Shubler  as 
follows :  — 

LB. 

Silicious  sand 110 

Half  sand  and  half  clay 96 

Common  arable  soil 80  to  90 

Heavy  clay 75 

Garden  mold  rich  in  vegetable  matter 70 

Peat  soil 30  to  50 

Warington  gives  the  following  data  regarding  the  weight  of  soil  per 
acre :  — 

1.  Old  -pasture,  Rothamsted,  loam  with  clay  subsoil 


Original 
Wet  Soil 

Dry  Soil 

Total 

Stones 

Fine  soil 

Roots 

First  9  inches  . 
Second  9  inches    . 
Third  9  inches       . 
Fourth  9  inches    . 

lb. 
3,294,380 
3,867.780 
4,091,620 
4,139,420 

lb. 
2,328,973 
3,098,939 
3,273,324 
3,343,787 

lb. 
174,091 
353,322 
217,515 
280,730 

lb. 
2,144,470 
2,744,715 
3,055,501 
3,063,057 

lb. 
10,412 
902 
308 

2.   Arable  land,   Rothamsted,  loam  with  clay  subsoil 


Original 
Wet  Soil 

Dry  Soil 

Total 

Stones 

Fine  soil 

Roots 

First  9  inches  .     . 
Seconfl  9  inches    . 
Third  9  inches       . 
Fourth  9  inches    . 

lb. 
3.288..553 
3,688.115 
3,882,285 
3,995,723 

lb. 
2.919.689 
3.044.615 
3.215.285 
3.313.563 

lb. 
340.656 
141.861 
213,190 
197,4oO 

lb. 
2.578.634 
2.902.682 
3.002.095 
3,116,163 

lb. 
399 

72 

WEIGHT   OF  SOILS 


31 


3.  Arable  land,   Woburn,  sandy  soil 


Original 
Wet  Soil 

Dry  Soil 

Total 

Stones 

Fine  soil 

Roots 

First  9  inches  .     . 
Second  9  inches    . 
Third  9  inches       . 
Fourth  9  inches    . 

lb. 
3,835,104 
3,947,640 
4,046,364 
4,014,432 

lb. 
3,157,448 
3,381,804 
3,462,498 
3,501,466 

lb. 

93,763 

201,527 

170,443 

274,239 

lb. 
3,063,074 
3,180,277 
3,292,055 
3,227,227 

lb. 
611 

These  tables  show:  (1)  That  each  of  these  classes  of  soil  is  lighter 
at  the  surface ;  (2)  that  in  each  case  the  weight  increases  with  an  in- 
crease in  depth.     This  increase  in  weight  of  the  lower  zones  is  due: 

(1)  to  the  increase  of  pressure  to  which  the  lower  zones  are  subjected; 

(2)  to  the  fact  that  the  surface  soil  is  more  loose  and  porous;  (3) 
to  coarser  texture  of  subsoil.  This  condition  is  brought  about  by  the 
removal  of  the  finest  soil  particles  from  the  surface  into  the  sub-soil 
by  the  action  of  rain ;  by  the  accumulation  of  organic  matter  in  the 
surface  soil ;  and,  in  the  case  of  arable  soils,  by  tillage. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  soil  indicates  its  weight  as  compared  with 
the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  water.  An  English  authority  has 
published  the  following  table,  which  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
more  common  soil  constituents :  — 


Water  . 

1.00 

Dolomite     .... 

.     .     .     2.8-3.0 

Humus 

1.2-1.5 

Mica 

.     .     .     2.8-3.2 

Clay      . 

2.50 

Hornblende 

.     .     .     2.9-3.4 

Quartz 

2.62 

Augite 

.     .     .     3.2-3.5 

Feldspar 

2.5-2.8 

Limonite     .... 

.     .     .     3.4-4.0 

Talc      . 

2.6-2.7 

Hematite    .... 

.     .     .     5.1-5.2 

Calcite 

2.75 

Schone  gives  the  following  for  the  specific  gravity  of  soils :  — 

Clay  soil 2.65 

Sandy  soil 2.67 

Fine  soil 2.71 

Humus  soil 2.53 


The  true  specific  gravity  of  an  arable  soil  varies  from  about  2.5  to 
2.7. 


32 


THE  ELEMENTS  AND    THE  SOIL 


Texture  of  the  soil. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  particles  of  which  the  soil  is  composed 
determine  its  texture.  The  arrangement  of  the  particles  determines 
its  structure^  as  "  loose,"  "  open,"  "  mealy,"  "  friable,"  "  cloddy," 
"  porous,"  "  hard,"  "  compact,"  "  retentive,"  "  leachy." 

The  texture  determines  the  amount  of  soil-surface  exposed  to  roots, 
and  to  a  great  extent  the  quantity  of  moisture  that  the  soil  may  hold. 

The  size  and  form  of  the  particles  determine  the  number  in  a  given 
volume  of  soil.  It  has  been  estimated  by  Whitney  that  a  gram  of  soil 
contains  2,000,000,000  to  20,000,000,000  soil  particles.  The  number  of 
particles  per  gram  of  different  soil  types  is  approximately  as  follows :  — 


Early  truck  .     .     .     . 
Truck  and  small  fruit 

Tobacco 

Wheat 

Grass  and  wheat    .     . 
Limestone     .     .     .     . 


1,955,000,000 

3,955,000,000 

6,786,000,000 

10,228,000,000 

14,735,000,000 

19,638,000,000 


Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  soil  is  made  up  of  particles,  there  is  between 
them  a  certain  amount  of  space  that  is  occupied  by  air  or  water ;  this 
is  kno^vn  as  the  "  pore  space."  In  ordinary  soils  the  pore  space  varies 
from  a  little  over  50  per  cent  in  the  finest  clay  soils  to  about  25  or  30 
per  cent  in  coarse  sands  of  uniform  texture. 

Soil  Water 

Water  occurs  in  the  soil  in  three  forms :  (1)  Gravitational  or  hydro- 
static water ;   (2)  capillary  water ;    (3)  hygroscopic  water. 

Amount  of  water  used  by  various  crops  in  producing  a  ton  of  dry-matter  (Stevenson) 


No.   OF 

Trials 

Water  used 

PER  Ton  of 

Dry-Matter 

Water  Used 

Dry-Matter 
PER  Acre 

Acre-inch 

OF  Water 

PER  Ton  of 

Dry-Matter 

(King) 

Barley  .... 
Oats      .... 
Maize    .     .     .     . 
Clover        .     .     . 
Peas      .... 
Potatoes    .     .     . 
Average 

5 
20 
52 
46 

1 
14 

tons 
464.1 
503.9 
270.9 
576.6 
477.2 
385.1 
446.3 

in. 
20.69 
39.53 
15.76 
22.34 
16.89 
23.78 
23.165 

tons 
5.05 
8.89 
6.59 
4.39 
4.009 
6.995 
5.987 

4.096 

4.447 

2.391 

5.0899 

4.212 

3.339 

3.939 

WATER  IN    THE   SOIL 


33 


Mean  volume  of  water  held  by  different  soils,  in  laboratory  tests  in  columns  45  inches 
high,  with  calculations  to  field  conditions  (Lyon  and  Fippin) 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

h 

Hi 

Approximate  Per 
Cent    of    Mois- 
ture    AT     WHICH 
Crops  will  Wii.t 

°«'. 

i^ 
rj| 

^<^ 

in   U 

Ok 
«\ 

O  J  g 

Inches  of  Avail- 
able   Water    to 
Depth  of  Four 
Feet 

lb. 

cu.  in.       CC. 

1.  Dune  sand      .     . 

52 

10.7 

3 

7.7 

80 

166      2,720 

4.60 

2.  Coarse  sand   .     . 

51 

10.6 

3 

7.6 

81 

170      2,790 

5.20 

3.  Fine  sandy  loam 

50 

18.0 

5 

13.0 

83 

300      4,900 

8.50 

4.  Light  silt  loam    . 

50 

20.9 

10 

10.9 

83 

250      4,100 

6.90 

5.  Clay      .... 

59 

30.4 

17 

13.4 

68 

252      4,140 

7.03 

6.   Muck  soil  . 

80  1 

250.0 

80 

170.0 

15 

740    11,550 

20.50 

1  Estimated. 

Water  taken  from  the  soil  by  evaporation  is  a  loss  additional  to  that 
transpired  by  the  crop.  The  following  results  were  secured  at  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  in  an  experiment  to  determine  the  total 
amount  of  water  removed  from  the  soil  by  evaporation  and  tran- 
spiration :  — 


One  Ton 

Tons  of  Water 
Lost 

Acre-inch  of 
Water  Lost 

Clnvpr  linv                       .      .            

1560 

570 

1200 

13  7 

Air-dried  corn  fodder 

Oats  and  straw 

5.0 
11.0 

One  inch  of  water  covering  an  acre  of  land  weighs  about  226,875 
pounds,  or  more  than   113  tons. 

Water   evaporated  by  growing    plants  for  one   part  of  dry  matter   produced,   in 
pounds  (Lyon  and  Fippin) 


Lawes  and  Gilbert 

Hellriegel 

Wollny 

King 

England 

Germany 

Germany 

Wisconsin 

Beans  .     .     . 

214 

Beans      .     . 

262 

Maize 

233 

Maize      .     . 

272 

Wheat      .     . 

225 

Wheat     .     . 

359 

Millet      .     . 

416 

Potatoes       . 

423 

Peas     .     .     . 

235 

Peas  .     .     . 

292 

Peas  .     .     . 

479 

Peas  .      .     . 

447 

Red  clover    . 

249 

Red  clover  . 

330 

Rape       .     . 

912 

Red  clover  . 

453 

Barley      .     . 

262 

Barley     .     . 

310 

Barley    .     . 

774 

Barley     .     . 

393 

Oats        .     . 

402 

Oats  .     .     . 

665 

Oats    .     .     . 

55V 

Buckwheat . 

371 

Buckwheat . 

664 

Lupine    . 

373 

Mustard 

843 

Rye    .     .     . 

377 

Sunflower    . 

490 

34 


THE   f:LEMENTS   AND    THE   SOIL 


Water  needed  under  arid  conditions. 

Under  di y-farniing  conditions,  Widtsoe  calculates  that 

1  acro-iiK'h  of  water  will  produce  2>^  bu.  wheat 
10  acre-iiK'hes  of  water  will  produce  25  bu.  wheat 
15  acre-inches  of  water  will  produce  37^  bu.  wheat 
20  acre-inches  of  water  will  produce  50       bu.  wheat 

if  all  the  water  could  be  saved  and  be  fully  utilized  in  plant  growth. 
Under  average  cultural  conditions  in  arid  regions,  he  concludes  that 
approximately  750  i)oundsof  water  are  required  for  the  production  of  one 
pound  of  dry  matter. 

Plant-Food  in  the  Soil 

In  estimating  plant-food,  chemists  usually  catalogue  only  the  three 
elements  (or  combinations  of  them)  that  are  likely  to  be  much  depleted 
by  the  growing  of  crops,  —  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium.  (These 
determinations  were  made  by  the  solution-in-hydrochloric-acid 
method,  sp.  gr.  1 .  115.  Other  analytical  methods  in  use  would  give 
higher  readings,  particularly  in  phosphorus  and  potash,  as  stronger 
acids  are  used  to  make  the  soil  solutions.) 

Plant-food  in  surface  soils,  with  calculations  to  pounds  in  an  acre  (Roberts) 


NiTBOGEN 

Phos.  Acid 

Potash 

Lb.  N. 

Lb.  P,U, 

Lb.  KaO 

No. 

N..% 

P2O5.  % 

K,0,  % 

IN  IST 

8  IN.  Soir., 

IN  IST 

8  IN.  Soil 

in  2d 
8  in.  Soil 

1 

.379 

.059 

.062 

8.310 

1,294 

1,360 

2 

.293 

.056 

.034 

0,250 

1,194 

725 

3 

.195 

.196 

.183 

4,218 

4,240 

3,959 

4 

.282 

.267 

.866 

6,430 

0,094 

19,766 

5 

.245 

.05 

.232 

5,364 

1.095 

5,079 

6 

.26 

.052 

.348 

5,700 

1,140 

7.630 

7 

.26 

.029 

.182 

5,035 

628 

3,945 

8 

.26 

.15 

.903 

5,700 

3,289 

19.800 

9 

.109 

.032 

.149 

2,321 

681 

3.173 

10 

.334 

.038 

.056 

7,224 

822 

1,211 

11 

.14 

.051 

.047 

2,971 

1,082 

997 

12 

.295 

.037 

.130 

0,312 

792 

2,782 

13 

.04 

.23 

.23 

S72 

5,016 

5,016 

14 

.09 

.019 

.019 

1,912 

404 

404 

15 

.12 

.23 

.9 

2,54S 

4,884 

19,113 

16 

.07 

.13 

.83 

1,512 

2,808 

17,929 

17 

.03 

.22 

.65 

635 

4.659 

12,812 

18 

.09 

!.r 

2.1 

1 ,958 

6.52() 

45,686 

19 

.07 

.29 

1.19 

1,4<)7 

6,202 

25,448 

20 

.12 

.44 

1.96 

2,571 

9.428 

42,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

THE  ALKALINE   SOILS 


35 


Phos.  Acid 

Potash 

Lb.  N. 

Lb.  PjOg 

Lb.  K2O 
in  2d 

8  IN.  Soil 

No. 

N.,% 

1\.05.  % 

K2O,  % 

8  IN.  Soil 

8  in.  Soil 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

21 

.10 

.33 

1.8 

2,153 

7,105 

38,752 

22 

.11 

.15 

.83 

2,343 

3,195 

17,682 

23 

.11 

.28 

1.95 

2,455 

6,250 

43,526 

24 

.04 

.13 

.89 

850 

2,759 

18,890 

25 

.07 

.21 

1.1 

1,484 

4,451 

23,314 

26 

.08 

.18 

.98 

1,701 

3,846 

20,833 

27 

.08 

.19 

.86 

1,699 

4,034 

18,260 

28 

.03 

.15 

.54 

636 

3,180 

11,447 

29 

oo 

.49 

1.85 

4,746 

10,571 

39,910 

30 

.16 

.36 

1.9 

3,509 

7,895 

41,670 

31 

.04 

.14 

.73 

848 

2,967 

15,480 

32 

.06 

.14 

.92 

1,272 

2,969 

19,510 

33 

.17 

.38 

1.18 

3,599 

8,046 

24,984 

34 

.1 

2 

1.13 

2,143 

4,285 

24,212 

Alkali  Lands 

In  countries  of  heavy  rainfall,  the  alkaline  materials  are  leached  out 
in  the  drainage  waters.  In  arid  countries  there  is  very  little  or  no 
leachage ;  the  water  passes  off  by  evaporation,  and  the  alkaline  and 
other  materials  in  solution  are  left  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  normal  condition  of  arid  lands  is  illustrated  in  the  table  below 
(Means).  The  first  part  gives  the  percentage  of  total  soluble  salts 
in  two  soils  from  central  Montana,  where  neither  soil  originally  con- 
tained enough  alkali  within  the  zone  of  root  action  to  be  detrimental. 
The  second  part  shows  the  condition  of  these  soils  after  a  few  years 
of  judicious  irrigation,  and  the  third  part  displays  the  condition  after 
a  few  years  of  irrigation  without  drainage :  — 

Table  showing  percentage  of  alkali  in  soils 


Unirrigated 

Irrigated 

Over-irrigated 

Depth 

Sandy 
Loam 

Clay 

Sandy 
Loam 

Clay 

Sandy 
Loam 

Clay 

First  foot    . 
Second  foot 
Third  foot 
Fourth  foot 
Fifth  foot  . 
Sixth  foot  . 
Seventh  foot 
Eighth  foot 
Ninth  foot 
Tenth  foot 
Eleventh  foot 
Twelfth  foot 

.04 
.04 
.03 
.03 
.05 
.06 
.06 
.17 
.24 
.24 
.21 
.12 

.04 
.04 
.05 
.20 
.33 
.34 
.25 
.25 
.28 

.04 
.05 
.04 
.05 
.06 
.05 
.06 
.07 
.05 
.05 
.07 
.07 

.10 
.07 
.08 
.08 
.08 
.16 
.21 

.79 
.92 
.94 
.79 
.52 
.52 
.36 
.36 
.29 

.76 
.71 
.63 
.61 
.59 
.19 

36 


THE  ELEMENTS   AND    THE  SOIL 


Percentage  composition  of  alkali  in  arid  soils  ^  (Lyon  and  Fippin) 


Yakima  Co.,Wa8h. 
Meadowland 

Boise  Val- 
ley, Idaho 

Billings, 
Montana 

California 

Sur- 
face 

12  in. 

2d 
12  in. 

3d 

12  in. 

Sur- 
face 
12  in. 

Sur- 
face 
Depo- 
sit 

Crust 
0-1 
in. 

Sur- 
face 
10  in. 

Tu- 
lare 
Exp. 
Sta. 

Mo- 
jave 
Pla- 
teau 

Im- 
perial 
Des- 
ert 

Potassium      chloride, 
KCl 

Potassium       sulfate, 

K,S04 

Potassium  carbonate, 

K,C03  .... 
Sodium          sulfate, 

Na,S04  .  .  . 
Sodium              nitrate, 

XaXOa  .... 
Sodium        carbonate, 

XajCOs  .... 
Sodium           chloride, 

XaCl 

Sodium  phosphate, 
Xa^HPO*        .     .      . 

Magnesium  sulfate, 
MgSO*       .... 

Magnesium    chloride, 
MgCU        .... 

Calcium           chloride, 
CaCl, 

Sodium  bicarbonate, 
NaHCOa  .... 

Calcium  sulfate 
CaS04   .... 

Calcium  bicarbonate, 
Ca(HC03),    .     .     . 

Magnesium  bicarbon- 
ate, (Mg(HC03)2     . 

Potassium  bicarbon- 
ate. KHCO3   .     . 

Ammonium      carbon- 
ate (XHJjCOs 

8.74 
66.94 

13.30 
1.90 

9.12 

5.61 
9.73 

13.86 

36.72 

1.87 

16.48 

12.57 

7.82 
8.64 

6.58 

45.28 

6.17 

13.17 

12.34 

8.08 

16.54 
41.55 

.82 

31.27 
.64 

1.10 

1.84 

67.70 

.10 
17.56 

6.15 

.72 
5.93 

1.60 

85.57 

trace 
.55 

8.90 

.67 
2.71 

21.41 

35.12 

7.28 
trace 

4.06 

22.06 
10.07 

3.95 

25.28 
19.78 
32.58 
14.75 
2.25 

1.41 

.92 

43.34 

15.38 

39.34 

1.02 

1.15 

8.21 

.58 

28.83 

2.81 
58.42 

'  Compiled  from  analyses  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  by  the  California  Experiment  Station. 


TILLING    THE  SOIL 


37 


The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  of  gypsum  required  to  neutralize 
sodium  carbonate  in  an  acre-foot  of  soil :  — 


Per  Cent  Sodium 

Gypsum  per 

Per  Cent  Sodium 

Gypsum  per 

Carbonate 

Acre-foot  i 

Carbonate 

Acre-foot  i 

Per  cent 

Pounds 

Per  cent 

Pounds 

.01 

640 

.06 

3840 

.02 

1280 

.07 

4480 

.03 

1920 

.08 

5120 

.04 

2560 

.09 

5760 

.05 

3200 

.10 

6400 

»  An  acre-foot  of  soil  weighs  4,000,000  pounds. 

Very  often  the  black  alkali  is  accompanied  by  other  soluble  salts, 
and  the  change  in  kind  of  salt  brought  about  by  the  gypsum  leaves 
more  white  alkali  than  plants  will  stand.  The  economic  use  of  gypsum 
is  therefore  restricted  to  localities  having  only  small  amounts  of  total 
soluble  salts.  As  a  general  rule,  drainage  can  be  properly  applied, 
and  the  land  freed  of  both  black  alkali  and  white  alkali  at  less  expense 
than  by  the  application  of  gypsum.  Gypsum  costs  $4  to  $10  per  ton 
in  the  regions  where  it  is  needed  in  black  alkali  reclamation,  and  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  sufficient  to  neutralize  0.1  per  cent  of 
sodium  carbonate  in  two  or  three  acre-feet  of  soil  per  acre,  the  cost 
is  seen  to  be  prohibitive. 


Tillage,  and  Soil  Management 

Tillage  is  the  preparing  and  stirring  of  the  soil  with  the  object  to 
make  it  more  congenial  to  the  growth  of  plants.  On  the  wise  manage- 
ment of  the  soil  depends  the  perpetuation  of  the  human  race. 

Objects  of  tillage  (King). 

Stated  in  the  broadest  and  briefest  way,  the  purpose  of  tillage  is 
to  develop  and  maintain  beneath  the  surface  of  the  field  a  commodious 
and  thoroughly  sanitary  home  and  feeding  ground  for  the  roots  of 
crops  and  for  the  soil  organisms  that  help  to  transform  the  organic 
matter  and  the  less  soluble  forms  of  the  mineral  plant-food  materials 
of  the  soil  into  more  soluble  and  suitable  conditions  adapted  to  the 
immediate  needs  of  plants.    But  to  make  the  habitable  part  of  the  soil 


S8  THE  ELEMENTS   AND    THE   SOIL 

of  a  field  coinmoclious  and  sanitary,  and  at  the  same  time  to  maintain 
within  it  a  sufficiently  rapid  develoi^ment  of  readily  water-soluble 
plant-food  materials  so  conditioned  as  to  be  highly  available  to  the  crop, 
requires  careful  attention  to  many  essential  details.  Some  of  the  chief 
objects  of  tillage  are :  — 

(1)  To  secure  a  thorough  surface  uniformity  of  the  fiekl,  so  that  an 
equally  vigorous  growth  may  take  place  over  the  entire  area. 

(2)  To  develop  and  maintain  a  large  effective  depth  of  soil,  so  that 
there  shall  be  ample  living  room,  an  extensive  feeding  surface  and  large 
storage  capacity  for  moisture  and  available  plant-food  materials. 

(3)  To  increase  the  humus  of  the  soil  through  a  deep  and  extensive 
incorporation  of  organic  matter,  so  that  there  may  be  a  strong  growth 
of  soil  micro-organisms  and  the  maintenance  of  a  high  content  of 
water-soluble  plant-food  materiab. 

(4)  To  improve  the  tilth  and  maintain  the  best  structural  condition 
in  the  soil,  so  that  the  roots  of  the  crop  and  the  soil  organisms  may 
spread  readily  and  widely  to  place  themselves  in  the  closest  contact 
with  the  largest  amount  of  food  materials. 

(5)  To  control  the  amount,  to  regulate  the  movement,  and  to  deter- 
mine the  availability  of  soil  moisture,  so  that  there  shall  never  be  an 
excess  or  a  deficiency  of  this  indispensable  carrier  of  food  materials 
to  and  through  the  plant. 

(6)  To  determine  the  amount,  movement,  and  availability  of  the 
water-soluble  plant-food  materials  present  in  the  soil,  so  that  growth 
may  be  both  rapid,  normal,  and  continuous  to  the  end  of  the 
season. 

(7)  To  convert  the  entire  root  zone  of  the  soil  into  a  commodious 
sanitary  living  and  feeding  place,  perfectly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
roots  of  the  crop  and  to  the  soil  organisms,  —  adequately  drained, 
perfectly  ventilated,  and  sufficiently  warm. 

(8)  To  reduce  the  waste  of  plant-food  materials  through  the  de- 
struction of  weeds,  and  the  prevention  of  their  growth,  through  preven- 
tion of  surface  washing  and  drifting  by  winds. 

Jordan's  rules  of  fertility. 

1.  Thorough  tillage,  with  efficient  machinery,  to  be  given  if  possible 
when  the  moisture  conditions  of  the  soil  admit  of  satisfactory  pulveri- 
zation. 


RULES   OF  FERTILITY  39 

2.  Frequent  surface  tillage  at  times  of  scanty  rainfall,  in  order  to 
conserve  the  supply  of  soil  moisture. 

3.  A  sufficiently  rapid  rotation  of  crops  to  insure  good  soil  texture, 
to  allow  the  necessary  frequency  of  applying  fertilizing  material,  and 
as  a  main  result  to  secure  a  paying  stand  of  crops. 

4.  The  introduction  into  the  soil  at  frequent  intervals  of  an  amount 
of  organic  matter  necessary  to  proper  soil  texture  and  water  holding 
power,  either  by  application  of  farm  manures,  by  plowing  down  soiling 
crops,  or  by  the  rotting  of  the  turf. 

5.  The  scrupulous  saving  of  all  the  excrement  of  farm  animals, 
both  solid  and  liquid. 

6.  The  purchase  of  plant-food  with  due  reference  to  the  needs  of 
the  farm  and  to  the  system  of  farm  management  prevailing. 

7.  The  maintenance  in  the  soil  of  those  conditions  of  drainage  and 
aeration  which  promote  the  growth  of  desirable  soil  organisms,  and  the 
introduction  into  the  soil  when  necessary,  of  such  organisms  as  are 
essential  to  the  growth  of  particular  plants. 


CHAPTER  III 

Chemical  Fertilizers;  and  Lime 

A  fertilizer  is  a  material  added  to  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing food  for  plants. 

An  amendment  is  a  substance  or  material  that  modifies  the  physical, 
mechanical  and  chemical  nature  of  the  soil. 

Stable  manure  is  both  fertilizer  and  amendment.  Lime  is  used 
mostly  as  an  amendment,  since  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  supply  it  for 
the  plant-food  that  it  contains.  On  sandy  soils  it  may  be  needed  as 
a  fertilizer. 

The  extent  of  the  fertilizer  industry  is  indicated  by  the  following 
figures  of  complete  fertilizers  manufactured  in  the  United  States  in 
two  given  years  :  — 


Quantity   in    tons    of 

2000  1b 

Value 


1900 


1,478,826 
S26,318,995 


1905 


1,603,847 
$31,305,057 


Increase 


125,021 
$4,986,062 


Per  Cent  of 
Increase 


8.5 
18.9 


Fertilizer  discussions  are  concerned  mostly  with  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
and  potassium  (always  in  combination  with  other  elements,  never  used 
in  their  elemental  form),  since  these  are  the  elements  most  likely  to  be 
deficient  in  the  soil.  To  be  economically  usable  as  a  fertilizer,  a 
material  must  not  only  contain  some  one  or  more  of  these  three 
elements  in  available  form,  but  it  must  be  relatively  low  in  price  and 
obtainable  in  large  quantities.  Nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre)  is  a  good 
fertilizer,  but  it  is  impossible  to  use  it  because  of  the  cost.  Many  of 
the  fertilizer  materials,  —  as  bone-black,  blood,  ashes,  —  are  waste 
products  or  by-products. 

40 


FERTILIZER  MATERIALS 


41 


Some  of  the  Sources  of  Chemical  Fertilizers 

Percentage  composition  of  materials  used  as  sources  of  nitrogen  (Gorman  Kali 
Works,  N.Y.  City) 


Nitrate  of  soda  .  . 
Sulfate  of  ammonia  . 
Dried      blood      (high 

grade) 

Dried       blood       (low 

grade)  

Tankage 

Dried  fish  scrap 
Cottonseed  meal 
Castor  pomace 
Tobacco  stems 


Nitrogen 


15      to  16 
193^  to  21 

13      to  14 

10  to  11 
5  to  9 
9  to  10 
61^  to  7}4 
5  to  6 
2}4  to    3 


Equivalent 

TO 

Ammonia 


to  193^ 
to  253^ 


16  to  17 

12  to  13 

6  to  11 

11  to  12 

7}4  to    9 

6  to    7 

3  to    SH 


Potash 
K2O 


1}4  to  2 

1  to  IH 

2  to  10 


Phos.  Acid 
Total 


2       to  3 

13^  to  2 

9      to  16 

5}4  to  7 

2      to  3 

IM  to  2 

H  to  1 


Composition  of  materials  used  as  sources  of  phosphoric  acid  (Kali  Works) 


Acid  phosphate 
Carolina  phos.  rock 
Dissolved         bone 

black    . 
Bone  meal    . 
Dissolved  bone 
Thomas  slag 
Peruvian  guano 


Total 


16  to  19 
26  to  27 

17  to  20 
20  to  25 
15  to  17 
22  to  24 
12  to  15 


Avail- 
able 


14  to  17 


16  to  18 

5  to    8 

13  to  15 

7  to    8 


Insol- 
uble 


1  to    2 
26  to  27 

1  to    2 
15  to  17 

2  to    3 
22  to  24 

5  to    8 


Nitrogen 


1  to  43^ 

2  to  3 

6  to  10 


Equivalent 

TO 

Ammonia 


ij4:to  5^ 

2}4  to     33^ 
7Mto  12 


Potash 
K2O 


m  to  4 


Marketed  production  of  phosphate  rock  in  the  United  States,  from  the  beginning  oj 
the  industry  in  1867  to  1909,  in  long  tons  (Van  Horn,  U.S.  Geol.  Surv.) 


Year 

Quantity 

Value 

Year 

Quantity 

Value 

1867-1887  . 

4,442,945 

$23,697,019 

1900  .  .  . 

1,491,216 

S5,359,248 

1888  .  .  . 

448,567 

2,018,552 

1901  . 

1,483,723 

5,316,403 

1889 

550,245 

2,937,776 

1902  . 

1,490,314 

4,693,444 

1890 

510,499 

3,213,795 

1903  . 

1,581,576 

5,319,294 

1891 

587,988 

3,651,150 

1904  . 

1,874,428 

6,580,875 

1892 

681,571 

3,296,227 

1905  . 

1,947,190 

6,763,403 

1893 

941,368 

4,136,070 

1906  . 

2,080,957 

8,579,437 

1894 

996,949 

3,479.547 

1907  . 

2,265,343 

10,653,558 

1895 

1,038,551 

3,606,094 

1908  . 

2,386,138 

11,399,124 

1896 

930,779 

2,803,372 

1909  . 

2,330,152 

10,772,120 

1897 

1,039,345 

2,673,202 

1898 

1,308,885 

3,453.460 

Total  . 

33,924,431 

139,487,246 

1899 

1,515,702 

5,084,076 

42 


CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS  :    AND    LIME 


World's  production  of  phosphate  rock,   1905-1907,    by  countries,    in  metric  tons 

(Van  Horn) 


Country 

1906 

1907 

1908 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Algeria 
Aruba  (Dutch 
West 

333,531 

$965,600 

373,763 

$2,183,404 

452,060 

$2,639,940 

Indies) 

26,138 

I 

36,036 

1 

29,061 

1 

Belgium   .     . 

152,140 

282,612 

182,230 

332.114 

198.030 

355,897 

Canada     .     . 

521 

4,024 

748 

6.018 

1,448 

14,794 

Christmas 

Islands 

(Straits 

Settle- 

ments) 

92,010 

1 

112.147 

1 

110,849 

1 

France      .     . 

469.408 

1,872.000 

431.237 

1,876.736 

485,607 

1,896,606 

Norway    .     . 

3.482 

46.524 

2 



Spain  .     .     . 

1.300 

7,592 

2 

Tunis  .     .     . 

796.000 

2,304,400 

1.069,000 

4,547,842 

1,300,543 

5,531,624 

United  King- 

dom     .     . 

33 

224 

9 

68 

United  States 

2,114,252 

8,579,437 

2,301,588 

10,653.558 

2,424,453 

11.399.124 

Average  composition  of  Stassfurt  potash  salts  (German  Kali  Works) 


■f' 

«^ 

lb 

u  5 

0  ^ 

H  a 

S« 

K 
1    U 
2;  H 

Calculated 

Name  of  Salts 

11 

ii 

P 

<  s 
1^ 

n 

as 

TO  Pure 

Potash 

K2O 

In  100  Parts  are  Contained 

02^ 

^§ 

^^ 

5- 

^§ 

ss 

< 

SO4 

KCI 

Mg- 
SO4 

C12 

xkci 

Ca- 
SO4 

li 

Aver- 
age 

Guar- 
anteed 

A.    Crude  Salts 

(Natural  Products) 

Kainit 

21.3 

2.0 

14.5 

12.4 

34.6 

1.7 

0.8 

12.7 

12.8 

12.4 

Carnallit 

15.5 

12.1 

21.5 

22.4 

1.9 

0.5 

26.1 

9.8 

9.0 

B.    Coufontratcd  Salts 

(Manufactured  Products) 

Sulfate  of  Potash  (^^% 

97.2 
90.6 

0.3 
1.6 

0.7 
2.7 

0.4 
1.0 

0.2 
1.2 

0.3 
0.4 

0.2 
0.3 

0.7 
2  2 

52.7 
49.9 

51.8 
48.6 

Sulfate  ofpotash-magnesia 

50.4 

34.0 

2.5 

0.9 

0.6 

11.6 

27.2  i  25.9 

Muriate  of   (90-95% 
Potash       80-85% 

91.7 

0.2 

0.2 

7.1 

— 

0.2 

0.6 

57.7 

56.8 

83.5 

0.4 

0.3 

14.5 

— 

0.2 

1.1 

52.7 

50.5 

Manure    salt,   min.   pot- 

ash     ....  20% 

2.0 

31.6 

10.6 

5.3 

40.2 

2.1 

4.0 

4.2 

21.0 

20.0 

Manure    salt,    niin.    30% 

potash  

1.2 

47.6 

9.4 

4.8 

26.2 

2.2 

3.5 

5.1 

30.6 

30.0 

Value  not  reported. 


*  Statistics  not  yet  available. 


SOURCES    OF  POTASH 


43 


Potash  salts  produced  in  the   United  States,   1850  to  1905 

Survey.) 


(Phalen,  U.S.  Geol. 


Census 

Number  of 
Establish- 
ments 

Product 

Average  Price 

Quantity 

Value 

per  Pound 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1905 

569 
212 
105 

68 

75 

67  2 

39  2 

lb. 

4,571,671 
5,106,939 
3,864,766 
1,811,037 

$1,401,533 
538,550 
327,671 
232,643 
197,507 
178,180 
104,655 

$0,051 
0.039 
0.046 
0.058 

1  Munroe,  C.  E.,  Bull.  92,  Census  of  Manufactures,  Bur.  Census,  1905,  p.  38. 

2  Includes  establishments  engaged  primarily  in  the  manufacture  of  other 
products. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  United  States  produced  a  large  part, 
if  not  all,  of  the  potash  it  consumed.  The  burning  of  wood  and  the 
lixiviation  of  the  resulting  ash  to  extract  the  potash,  though  of  minor 
importance  so  far  as  the  monetary  value  of  the  product  is  concerned, 
is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  purely  chemical  industries  in  this  country. 
Cognizance  was  taken  of  it  in  the  census  reports  as  early  as  1850,  so 
that  data  are  available  for  comparing  the  condition  of  the  industry  for 
each  decade  since  that  year.  The  above  table  gives  the  quantity  and 
value  of  potash  produced  in  the   United  States  from  1850    to  1905. 

Potash  salts  are  used  extensively  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
essential  to  numerous  industries  that  are  vitally  connected  with  the 
welfare  of  the  American  people  —  the  most  notable  being  the  ferti- 
lizer industry.  They  are  used  also  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  in 
certain  kinds  of  soap,  in  some  explosive  powders,  and  in  the  chemical 
industries,  including  the  inanufacture  of  alum,  cyanides,  bleaching 
powders,  dyestuffs,  and  other  chemicals.      (Phalen.) 


Importation  of  potash  salts 

The  potash  industry  has  not  been  revived  in  the  United  States  thus 
far,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  potash  salts  now  used  are  imported.  The 
following  table  (by  Phalen)  shows  the  magnitude  of  the  importation  of 
potash  salts  for  the  years  1900,   1905,  and  1910:  — 


44 


CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS :    AND    LIME 


Imports  of  potash  salts  for  the  calendar  years   1900,  1905,  and  1910,  in  poundsK 
[Figures  from  Bureau  of  Statistics] 


1900 

1905 

1910 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

Chlorate    .... 

1.243,612 

$68,772 

Chloride     .... 

130,175.481 

1.976.604214.207.064 

$3,326,478 

381.873.875 

$5,252,373 

Nitrate   (crude  and 

refined)        .      .      . 

10,545,392 

276,664 

9.911.534 

304.596 

11,496.904 

333,854 

All  other,  including 

c:\rbonate    (crude 

and   refined),    bi- 

carbonate, caustic 

(crude     and      re- 
fined),   chromate 

and     bichromate. 

cyanide,     hydrio- 

date,    iodide,    io- 

date,     permanga- 

nate,       prussiate 

(red  and  yellow). 

sulfate         (crude 

and  refined)     .     . 

54,904,088 

1.407,303 

82,935,532 

1.891.081 

116.820.873 

2.777.396 

Total      .... 

196,868,573 

3.729,343 

307,054,130 

5,522,155 

510.191,652 

8,363,023 

Increase     .... 

110.185,573,    1.792.812 

203,137,522 

2,841,468 

Percentage     of     in- 

crease    .... 

55.96 

48.07 

66.15 

51.45 

Kainit,    "kvanite," 

and  kieserite,  and 

manure  salts  * 

520.605,120 

1.508,217 

830.903,360 

3,116.884 

1,288,199,360 

3,251.511 

1  This  table  is  based  on  total  imports  for  the  calendar  year,  not  on  imports  for  consump- 
tion for  the  calendar  year. 

*  These  figures  are  for  the  fiscal  years. 


Potassic  materials  produced  by  the  aid  of  electricity 

Among  the  chemicals  produced  by  the  aid  of  electricity  are  potas- 
sium chlorate  and  potassium  hydroxid.  The  following  table  gives  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  potassium  salts  made  electrolyticallv  at  the 
censuses  of  1900  and  1905,  with  the  amount  and  percentage  of  increase 
(Phalen) :  — 


1900 

J  905 

Increase 

Per  Cent  op 
Increase 

Quantity,  tons        .     . 
Value 

1,900 
$80,097 

3,908 
$200,008 

2,008 
$119,911 

105.7 
149.7 

CONTENT   OF  FERTILIZERS 


45 


Principal  potash  materials  used  in  fertilizers  in  the  United  States,  1900  and  1905 


Kainit : 

Quantity,  tons   . 

Value  .... 
Other  potash  salts : 

Quantity,  tons   . 

Value  .... 
Nitrate  of  potash  . 

Quantity,  tons   . 

Value  .... 
Wood  ashes : 

Quantity,  bushels 

Value  .... 


1900 


54,700 
$520,833 


$3,098,400 

884 
$32,156 


1905 


190,493 
$1,891,073 

122,107 
$3,606,701 

1,160 
$39,039 

17,083 
$2,050 


Increase 


135,793 
$1,370,240 


$508,301 


276 

$6,883 


Per  Cent  of 
Increase 


248.3 
263.1 


16.4 

31.2 
21.4 


Fertilizer  Formulas  and  Guarantees  (Voorhees) 

Probably  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  fertihzers  used  in  this  country 
are  purchased  in  the  form  of  mixtures  containing  all  three  of  the  essen- 
tial constituents,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  The  various 
brands  are  prepared  from  formulas  designed  to  be  especially  suitable  for 
different  crops  and  soils.  This  method  of  purchase  saves  labor  and 
thought  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  but  the  cost  of  the  constituents  is 
greater  than  if  the  fertilizer  materials  are  bought  and  home-mixed; 
besides,  in  the  mixtures  the  farmer  does  not  always  obtain  such  pro- 
portions of  the  constituents  as  are  best  adapted  to  his  conditions. 
These  mixed  fertilizers,  as  a  rule,  are,  and  should  always  be,  accom- 
panied by  a  statement  of  guaranteed  composition.  This  is  very  essen- 
tial, because  purchasers  are  unable  to  tell,  by  mere  visual  inspection, 
what  kinds  and  proportions  of  fertilizing  materials  have  entered  into 
the  mixture.  In  many  states  the  laws  require  that  the  source  o!  the 
materials  also  shall  be  distinctly  stated,  in  order  to  insure  the  use  of 
good  products,  as  the  mixing  permits  the  disguising  of  poor  forms, 
especially  of  those  containing  the  element  nitrogen. 

Guarantees,  however,  sometimes  confuse  the  purchaser,  because  the 
method  of  stating  the  guarantee  is  such  as  to  mislead,  provided  he  does 
not  understand  the  meaning  of  the  terms,  or  is  unable  to  convert  the 
percentages  into  their  equivalents.  It  is  entirely  legitimate,  when  there 
are  no  laws  forbidding,  for  the  manufacturer  to  guarantee  ammonia, 


46 


CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS ;    AND    LIME 


instead  of  nitrogen  ;  bone  phospliate,  instead  of  phosphoric  acid  ;  and 
sulfate  of  potash,  instead  of  actual  potash.  The  statement  of  the 
guarantee  of  the  constituents  in  combination  increases  the  percentage, 
thus  leading  ignorant  purchasers  to  think  that  they  are  obtaining  a 
larger  percentage  of  the  constituents  than  is  really  the  case. 

In  the  case  of  raw  materials,  a  guarantee  based  on  the  purity  of  the 
chemical  salts  is  very  frequently  used.  That  is,  a  substance  when  pure 
contains  100  per  cent  of  the  specific  salt,  and  the  guarantee  which 
accompanies  this  product  is  merely  a  statement  that  indicates  its  purity. 
For  example,  when  nitrate  of  soda  is  guaranteed  to  contain  95  per 
cent  nitrate,  it  means  that  it  is  95  per  cent  pure  nitrate,  or  that  5  per 
cent  of  the  total  substance  consists  of  impurities.  The  same  is  true  in 
the  case  of  sulfate  of  ammonia,  sulfate  of  potash,  muriate  of  potash, 
and  other  potash  salts  that  may  be  offered.  In  order  that  the  farmer 
may  have  a  simple  method  of  determining  the  actual  content  of  the 
constituents,  however  guaranteed,  the  following  tables  are  given  to 
show  the  terms  that  are  used,  their  equivalent  of  actual  elements,  and 
the  factors  to  use  in  converting  the  one  into  the  other :  — 


To  convert  the  guarantee  of 

Ammonia 

Nitrogen 

Nitrate  of  soda  .... 
Bone  phosphate  .... 
Phosphoric  acid  .... 
Muriate  of  potash      .     .     . 

Actual  potash 

Sulfate  of  potash  .  .  . 
Actual  potash 


into  an 
equivalent 
of 


Ml 
Nitrogen      .     . 
Ammonia     .     . 
Nitrogen 
Phosphoric  acid 
Bone  phosphate 
Actual  potash 
Muriate  of  potash 
Actual  potash 
Sulfate  of  potash 


Itiply  by 
0.8235 
1.214 
0.1647 
0.458 
2.183 
0.632 
1.583 
0.54 
1.85 


The  following  statements  show  the  methods  of  stating  guarantees 
on  the  basis  of  purity,  in  the  case  of  many  raw  materials^  and  the  equiv- 
alent percentage  on  the  basis  of  actual  constituents : 
Guarantee  on  basis  of  purity :  — 

Nitrate  of  soda,  95  per  cent,  or  containing  95  per  cent  pure  nitrate. 
Muriate  of  potash.  80  per  cent,  or  containing  80  per  cent  pure  muriate. 
Sulfate  of  potash,  98  per  cent,  or  containing  98  per  cent  pure  sulfate. 
Kainit,  25  per  cent,  or  containing  25  per  cent  pure  sulfate. 

Guarantee  on  basis  of  actual  constituents :  — 


Nitrate  of  soda,  total  nitrogen 15.64  per  cent. 

Muriate  of  potash,  actual  pota.sh 50.50  per  cent. 

Sulfate  of  potash,  actual  potash         53.00  per  cent- 

Kainit,  actual  potash 13.50  per  cent. 


TRADE    VALUES    OF   FERTILIZERS  47 

The  following  illustration  shows  a  guarantee  of  the  same  mixed 
fertilizer,  on  the  basis  of  equivalents  in  combination,  and  on  the  basis 
of  actual  constituents : 
Guarantee  on  basis  of  equivalents  in  combination :  — 

Nitrogen  (equivalent  to  ammonia),  2  to  3  per  cent. 

Available  phosphoric  acid  (equivalent  to  bone  phosphate  of  lime),  16  to  20 

per  cent. 
Potash  (equivalent  to  sulfate  of  potash),   6  to  8  per  cent. 

Guarantee  on  basis  of  actual  constituents :  — 

Nitrogen  (total)         1.65  to  2.50  per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid  (available) 7.00  to  9.00  per  cent. 

Potash  (actual) 3.25  to  4.25  per  cent. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  guarantee  in  the  one  case  means  the  same 
as  in  the  other.  Different  methods  of  stating  guarantees  should  not 
mislead  those  who  will  familiarize  themselves  with  the  terms  used,  and 
with  the  conversion  factors. 

In  the  case  of  the  mixed  fertilizers,  the  percentage  of  the  constituent 
elements  that  are  given  on  the  basis  of  equivalents  represents  the 
amounts  when  they  exist  in  combination  with  other  elements,  viz., 
nitrogen,  as  ammonia;  phosphoric  acid,  as  bone  phosphate;  and 
potash,  as  sulfate. 

Methods  of  Computing  Trade  Value  of  Fertilizers 
Trade-values  of  plant-food  elements  in  raw  materials  and  chemicals,  1910. 

The  trade-values  in  the  following  schedule  have  been  agreed 
upon  by  the  Experiment  Stations  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Vermont,  as  a  result  of 
study  of  the  prices  actually  prevailing  in  the  large  markets  of  these 
states. 

These  trade-values  represent,  as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  the 
average  prices  at  which,  during  the  six  months  preceding  March,  the 
respective  ingredients,  in  the  form  of  unmixed  raw  materials,  could  be 
bought  at  retail  for  cash  in  our  large  markets.  These  prices  also  corre- 
spond (except  in  case  of  available  phosphoric  acid)  to  the  average  whole- 
sale prices  for  the  six  months  preceding  March,  plus  about  20  per  cent 
in  case  of  goods  for  which  there  are  wholesale  quotations. 


48  CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS ;    AND    LIME 

cts.  per  lb. 

Nitrogen  in  ammonia  salts        16 

NitroKon  in  nitrates  16 

Organie  nitrog(Mi  in  dry  and  fine-ground  fish,  meat  and  blood  and 

mixed  fertilizers 20 

Organic  nitrogen  in  fine-ground  bone  and  tankage 20 

Organic  nitrogen  in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 15 

Phosphoric  acid,  wat(>r-soluble 4,'-^ 

Phosi)horic  acid  citrate,  s()lul)le  (reverted) 4 

Phos|)h<)ric  acid  in  fine-ground  fish,  bon(>  and  tankage   ....  4 

Phosphoric  acid  in  cottonseed  meal,  castor-pomace  and  ashes    .  3J^ 

Phosphoric  acid  in  coarse  fish,  bone  and  tankage 33^ 

Phosphoric  acid  in  mixed  fertilizers,  in.solul^le  in  ammonium  citrate 

or  water 2 

Potash  as  high-grade  sulfate,  in  forms  free  from  muriates  (chlo- 
rides), in  ashes,  etc 5 

Potash  in  muriate 4|^ 

Valuation  and  cost  of  fertilizers. 

The  total  cost  (to  the  farmer)  of  a  ton  of  commercial  fertilizer  may 
be  regarded  as  consisting  of  the  following  elements:  (1)  Retail  cash 
cost,  in  the  market,  of  unmixed  trade  materials ;  (2)  cost  of  mixing ; 
(3)  cost  of  transportation ;  (4)  storage,  commissions  to  agents  and 
dealers,  selling  on  long  credit,  bad  debts,  etc.  While  the  total  cost  of  a 
fertilizer  is  made  up  of  several  different  elements,  a  commercial  valua- 
tion includes  only  the  first  of  the  elements  entering  into  the  total  cost, 
that  is,  the  retail  cash  cost  in  the  market  of  unmixed  raw  materials. 

Valuation,  atul  agricultural  value. 

The  agricultural  value  of  a  fertilizer  depends  upon  its  crop-producing 
power.  A  commercial  valuation  does  not  necessarily  have  any  relation 
to  crop-producing  value  on  a  given  farm.  For  a  particular  soil  and 
crop,  a  fertilizer  of  comparatively  low  commercial  valuation  may  have 
a  higher  agricultural  value ;  while,  for  another  crop  on  the  same  soil, 
or  the  same  crop  on  another  soil,  the  reverse  might  be  true. 

Rule  for  calculating  appro.vimate  commercial  valuation  of  mixed  ferti- 
lizers on  basis  of  trade-values  for  1910. 

Multiply  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  by  4.0. 
Multipl}''  the  percentage  of  available  phosphoric  acid  by  0.8. 
Multiply  the  percentage  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  (total  minus 
available)  by  0.4. 

Multiply  the  percentage  of  potash  by  1.0. 


FIGURING   FERTILIZERS  49 

The  sum  of  these  4  products  will  be  the  commercial  valuation  per 
von  on  the  basis  taken. 

Illustration.  The  table  of  analyses  shows  a  certain  fertilizer  to  have 
the  following  composition:  Nitrogen  2.52  per  cent;  available  phos- 
phoric acid  6.31  per  cent ;  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  .89  per  cent ; 
potash  6.64  per  cent.  According  to  this  method  of  valuation,  the 
computation  would  be  as  follows :  — 

Nitrogen 2.52  X  4.0  =$10.08 

Available  phosphoric  acid         6.31  X  0.8  =       5.05 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid         0.89  X  0.4  =      0.36 

Potash 6.64  X  1.0  =       6.64 


$22,13 

This  rule  assumes  all  the  nitrogen  to  be  organic  and  all  the  potash 

to  be  in  the  form  of  sulfate.     If  a  considerable  portion  of  nitrogen  exists 

in  the  fertihzer  as  nitrate  of  soda  or  as  sulfate  of  ammonia,  and  potash 

is  present  as  muriate,  the  results  are  somewhat  less. 

Farmers  should  be  warned  against  judging  fertilizers  by  their  valua- 
tions. A  fertilizer,  the  cost  of  which  comes  chiefly  from  the  phosphoric 
acid  present,  would  value  much  lower  commercially  than  a  fertilizer 
with  a  high  percentage  of  nitrogen,  and  yet  the  former  might  be  the 
more  profitable  for  a  given  farmer  to  purchase. 

Table  for  converting  the  fertilizer  elements  into  their  usually  reported  forms, 
and  vice  versa     (J.  P.  Stewart)     Corrected 

(a)  Converting  Elements  into  Com-    (Jb)  Converting  Compounds  into  Ele- 

POUNDS  MENTS 

K  X  1.2043  =  KoO.  (Atomic  wts.  based       K2O  X  .8303  =  K. 

P  X  2.2903  =  P2O5.  on  O  =  16)               P2O5  X  .4366  =  P. 

NX  1.2154  =NH3.  NH3X.8228=N. 

Mg  X  1.6568  =  MgO.  MgO  X  .6036  =  Mg. 

Ca  X  1.3990  =  CaO.  CaO  X  .7148  =  Ca. 

Computing  the  trade  value. 

A  simple  way  of  figuring  the  value  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  1  (Cavanaugh) 

Example  No.  1.     Guaranteed  Analysis 

Nitrogen 1.60  to  2.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  available 7.00  to  8.00  per  cent 

Potash 2.00  to  3.50  per  cent 

Cost  per  ton $29.00 

^  In  these  and  the  succeeding  examples,  it  happens  that  the  trade  values  per 
lb.  of  chemicals  are  not  those  of  1910,  given  on  pp.  47-48  ;  but  it  is  intended 
only  to  explain  the  method. 

E 


50  CHEMICAL   yERTILlZEHS;    AND   LIME 

Multiplying  the  lowest  figure  representing  the  per  cent  of  the  given 
element  by  20,  and  calculating  tiie  value  from  the  price  per  pound,  we 
have  in  No.  1  (remembering  that  1  per  cent  means  one  pound  in  a 
hundred,  or  twenty  pounds  in  a  ton) :  — 

Nitrogen 1.60  X  20  =    32  lb.  ^  15^  =  S4.80 

Phosphoric  acid 7     X  20  =  140  lb.  @    5^  =    7.00 

Potash 2     X  20  =    40  lb.  @    5J?   =    2.00 

Commercial  \alae  per  ton $13.80 

Example  No.  2.     Guaranteed  Analysis 

Nitrogen 3.30  to    4.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  available 8.00  to  10.00  per  cent 

Potash         7.00  to    8.00  per  cent 

Cost  per  ton $38.00 

Its  value  is  calculated  the  same  as  No.  1 :  — 

Xitrogen 3.30  X  20  =    GG  lb.  @  15<?  =  $9.90 

Phosphoric  acid 8.00  X  20  =  IGO  lb.  @    50  =    8.00 

Potash 7.00  X  20  =  140  lb.  @    5^  =    7.00 

Commercial  value $24.90 

The  cheapest  fertilizer  is  the  one  in  which  one  dollar  purchases  the 
greatest  amount  of  plant-food.  In  No.  1,  $29  obtained  S13.80  worth, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  forty-eight  cents  worth  for  SI.  In  No.  2,  $38 
buys  $24.90  worth  of  plant-food,  or  at  the  rate  of  sixty-five  cents  worth 
for  the  dollar.  The  difference  between  the  commercial  value,  as  calcu- 
lated, and  the  selling  price,  is  to  cover  expenses  of  manufacture,  bag- 
ging, shipping,  commission  fees,  and  profits. 

How  to  figure  the  trade  value  of  a  fertilizer  in  greater  detail  (  Voorhees) 

It  is  assumed  that  the  mixed  fertilizer  is  guaranteed  to  contain 

Ammonia         4  per  cent 

Available  pho.sphoric  acid 8  per  cent 

Total  phosphoric  acid        9  per  cent 

Potash 6  per  cent 

and  that  the  nitrogen  exists  in  three  forms,  as  nitrate,  as  ammonia,  and 
as  organic ;  the  phosphoric  acid  in  three  forms,  soluble,  reverted,  and 
insoluble;  and  potash  in  two  forms,  sulfate  and  muriate.  The  4  per 
cent  ammonia  would  be  equivalent  to  3.28  per  cent  nitrogen,  1  per  cent 
of  which  is  nitrate-nitrogen,  \  per  cent  sulfate  of  ammonia-nitrogen, 


FIGURING   FERTILIZERS 


61 


and  1.78  per  cent  is  derived  from  organic  forms.  Of  the  total  phos- 
phoric acid,  6  per  cent  is  soluble,  2  per  cent  reverted,  and  1  per  cent  is 
insoluble ;  of  the  total  potash,  3  per  cent  is  derived  from  muriate  and 
3  per  cent  from  sulfate. 

The  first  column  in  Table  A  shows  the  percentage  of  the  constituents 
contained,  which,  multiplied  by  20,  gives  the  pounds  per  ton  in  the 
second  column,  which,  multiplied  by  the  schedule  prices  per  pound, 
gives  the  valuation  per  ton,  as  shown  in  the  fourth  column. 

In  the  case  of  ground  bone,  the  guarantee  is  4  per  cent  ammonia  and 
48  per  cent  bone  phosphate,  which  are  equivalent  to  3.28  per  cent  nitro- 
gen and  22  per  cent  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  assumed  that  60  per  cent 
of  the  material  is  finer  than  -^V  of  an  inch,  and  is  regarded  as  "fine," 
and  40  per  cent  is  coarser  than  -h  of  an  inch,  and  is  regarded  as 
"  coarse." 

Table  A.  —  Complete  Fertilizer 


Per  cent  or 
pounds  per  100 


2  3  4 

v„i,.„  ^„^  Estimated 
Pounds  ^^^^S  value  per 
per  ton      ^  JSs       *°^  ^^  ^^'^^ 


Nitrogen,  as  nitrates 
Nitrogen,  as  ammonia  salts 
Nitrogen,  as  organic  matter 

Total  nitrogen  .     .     . 
Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 
Phosphoric  acid,  reverted 
Phosphoric  acid,  insoluble 

Total  phosphoric  acid 
Potash,  as  muriate  .  . 
Potash,  as  sulfate       .     . 

Total  potash      .     .     . 


1.00  X  20 
0.50  X  20 
1.78  X  20 
3.28 

6.00  X  20 
2.00  X  20 
1.00  X  20 
9.00 

3.00  X  20 
3.00  X  20 
6.00 


20.0  X  16.5 

10.0  X  17.5 

35.6  X  18.5 

65.6 
120.0  X 

40.0    X 

20.0  X 
180.0 

60.0  X 

60.0  X 
120.0 


4.5 
4.5 
2.0 


4.25 
5.0 


constituent 
:  $3.30 

:         1.75 

:     6.59 


$5.40 
1.80 
0.40 


5 

Total 

estimated 

value 

per  ton 


$11.64 


2.55 
3.00 


7.60 


5.55 


$24.79 


Table  B.  —  Ground  Bone 


Per  cent 

or 
pounds 
per  100 


Per  cent 

of 
fineness 


Nitroeenl    3.28X00 
JNitrogenj    328  x  40 

Total      . 
Phosphoric  f  22.00  X  60 
acid        1  22.00  X  40 
Total      . 


Per  cent 

or  pounds 

per  100 


Pounds 
per  ton 


=     1.97  in  fine       X  20  ^ 
=     1.31  in  coarse  X  20  ■ 

3.28 
=  13.20  in  fine       X  20 


Value 

per 
pound, 
cents 


39.40  X  18.0  = 
26.20  X  13.0  = 
65.60 
264.00  X 


8.80  in  coarse  X  20  =  176.00  X 
22.00  440.00 


4.0  = 
3.0  = 


6  7 

Esti- 
mated Total 

value  esti- 

per  ton  mated 

of  each  value 

con-  per  ton 
stituent 

$7.09 
3.41 

$10.50 
10.56 
5.28 

15.84 
$26.34 


52  CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS ;    AND    LIME 

The  first  column  of  fij2:iires  in  Tabic  B  shows  the  percentage,  or 
pounds  ])er  hundred,  of  tlie  constituents,  which  is  niultii)lied  by  the 
percentage  of  iineness,  which  gives  the  percentage  or  pounds  per  hun- 
dred of  fine  or  coarse  in  the  third  column.  The  calculation  is  then 
finished,  as  in  the  case  of  complete  fertilizers. 

Home-Mixing  of  Fertilizers 
General  advice  (Kentucky  Station). 

The  farmer  may  mix  his  own  fertilizers  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 
He  should  first  determine  how  man\^  jiounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitro- 
gen, and  i)otash  he  wishes  to  use  per  acre,  then  determine  how  much  of 
each  of  the  materials  used  will  be  required  to  furnish  the  desired 
amounts  of  the  ingredients.  This  having  been  done,  it  is  easy  to  figure 
to  any  number  of  acres.  It  does  not  matter  about  figuring  out  what 
per  cent  there  will  be  of  each  ingredient,  the  important  thing  being  to 
know  how  many  pounds  of  each  ingredient  are  being  applied.  The 
foregoing  points  having  been  determined,  the  next  step  is  the  mixing. 
Prepare  a  tight  floor  of  sufficient  size.  Put  down  the  bulkiest  material 
first  in  an  even  layer,  following  with  the  others  in  order  of  their  bulk. 
See  that  all  lumps  are  well  broken  up.  Potash  salts  and  nitrate  of 
soda  may  be  lumpy.  Take  a  shovel  and  begin  at  one  end  of  the  pile 
and  shovel  the  materials  back,  turning  and  mixing  each  shovelful  as 
much  as  possible.  Repeat  the  operation  until  well  mixed.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  fertilizers  may  be  well  mixed  at  home,  but  it  is  advised 
only  when  it  can  be  done  more  cheaply  and  when  fertilizers  of  the 
desired  composition  cannot  be  purchased. 

The  function  of  the  fertilizer  factory  is  to  mix  fertilizers  cheaper 
and  better  than  the  farmer  can  do  it  himself.  That  the  factory  can  do 
this  there  is  no  doubt.  That  they  are  not  doing  so,  as  a  rule,  is 
evident. 

In  some  states,  the  farmer  decides  what  he  wants  to  use  on  his  land 
and  submits  his  fonnuia  to  the  manufacturer,  who  mixes  his  goods  for 
him  and  charges  the  retail  price  for  the  singles  or  simples  used,  and  a 
reasonable  profit  on  the  actual  cost  of  mixing. 

It  is  gratifying  that  some  of  the  largest  manufacturing  concerns 
advocate  the  exclusive  use  of  high-grade  fertilizers  and  the  unit  o^* 
pound  basis  of  purchase. 


ANTAGONISTIC  INGREDIENTS    OF  FERTILIZERS 


53 


Incompatibles  in  fertilizer  mixtures  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric). 

The  danger  of  indiscriminate  mixing  of  fertilizing  materials  should 
be  understood,  and  a  diagram  (Fig.  4)  is  given  to  indicate  what  com- 
binations may  be  safely  made  of  some  of  the  more  common  materials. 


Soperphospliatff. 


Thomas  slag. 


Ammonlaxn  siilphate. 


Lime  nitrogen  (e&\- 
dum  cyanamid). 


Potash  salts 


Barnyard  manare 
and  guano. 


Norwegian  nitrate 
(basic  calcium 
nitrate). 


E^mt. 


Nitrate  of  soda 


Bone  meal. 


Fig.  4.  — Incompatible  combinations  in  fertilizers. 

In  this  diagram  the  heavy  lines  unite  materials  which  should  never  be 
mixed,  the  double  lines  those  which  should  be  applied  immediately 
after  mixing,  and  the  single  lines  those  which  may  be  mixed  at  any  time. 

Table  for  calculating  raw  fertilizer  material  required  per  ton  by  mixtures  of 
given  composition 


Fertilizer  Material 

AS    CALLED   FOR   IN    A 

Formula 

Per  Cent  op 

Nitrogen  (N) 

in  the 

Formula 

Equivalent 

to  Ammonia 

(NHs) 

Per  Cent 

Factor  for 

calculating 

Fertilizer 

Material 

FROM  Nitrogen 

Factor  for 

calculating 

Fertilizer 

Material 

FROM  Ammonia 

Nitrate  of  soda 
Dried  blood 
Sulfate  of  ammonia 
Cotton-seed  meal 

15.0 

12.4 

20.0 

7.0 

18.2 
15.0 
24.3 

8.5 

Multiply  by 
133 
161 
100 
286 

Multiply  by 

110 

133 

86.4 

235 

54 


CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS;    AND    LIME 


Table  for  calculating  raw  fertilizer  material  required  per  ton  by  mixtures  of 
given  composition.  —  Coutinued 


Fertilizer  Material 

as  called  for  in  a 

Formula 

Phosphorus 
Per  Cent 

Phosphoric 
Acid  (PjOc) 

Per  Cent 

Factor  for 

calculating 

Fertilizer 

Material  KHOM 

Phosphorus 

Factor  for 

calculating 

Fertilizer 

Material  from 

Phosphoric 

Acid 

Acid  phosphate 
Basic  slag 

6.1 
7.0 

14.0 
16.0 

Multiply  by 
328 

285 

Multiply  by 
143 
125 

Potassium 
(K) 

Per  Cent 

Potash 
(KjO) 

Per  Cent 

Factor  for 

calculating 

Fertilizer 

Material  from 

Potassium 

Factor  for 

Calculating 

Fertilizer 

Material  from 

Potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

Kainit 

Sulfate  of  potash 

41.5 

10 

40 

50 
12 
48 

Multiply  by 

48 

200 

50 

Multiply  by 

40 

167 

42 

To  mix  a  2-8-6  fertilizer,  i.e.  a  fertilizer  containing  2  per  cent 
nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  6  per  cent  potash,  the 
quantities  of  raw  material  may  be  calculated  as  follows :  — 

2  X  133  =  266  lb.  nitrate  of  soda 
8  X  143  =  1144  lb.  acid  phosphate 
6  X    40  =  240  lb.  muriate  of  potash 
1650  lb.  mixture 

If  dried  blood  were  used  instead  of  nitrate  of  soda,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  use  322  lb.  of  it  to  secure  the  required  amount  of  nitro- 
gen (2x161=  322)  in  the  ton.  If  the  fornuila  called  for  ammonia 
rather  than  nitrogen,  the  multiple  would  be  110  or  133  respectively. 


Soil  Analysis  and  Fertilizer  Tests  (Cavanaugh) 

A  chemical  analysis  of  a  soil  consists  in  finding  the  amounts  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  and  humus  that  it  contains. 
It  may  be  carried  further,  and  the  other  constituents  determined. 
These  materials,  except  the  humus  and  nitrogen,  are  extracted  from 
the  soil  by  strong  acids.  The  action  of  these  acids  is  many  times 
stronger  than  is  ever  brought  to  bear  on  the  soil  in  its  normal  con- 


CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS    OF  SOILS  55 

dition  in  the  field.  It  is  therefore  impossible  at  present  to  draw  any 
certain  conclusions  from  the  results  of  such  an  analysis  that  are 
apphcable  to  field  conditions. 

If,  however,  an  analysis  shows  only  a  very  small  amount  of  nitrogen, 
then  one  may  conclude  that  the  soil  is  deficient  in  this  element  and 
will  probably  be  benefited  by  its  application.  But  this  may  be  as 
easily  told  by  a  simple  inspection  of  the  field  while  plants  are  growing. 
A  soil  deficient  in  nitrogen  is  constantly  showing  its  condition  in  the 
plants.  Short  growth  of  straw  and  vine,  failure  to  develop  a  full, 
dark-green  color,  and  the  growth  of  sorrel  and  ox-eye  daisy,  all  tell  as 
accurately  as  the  chemist  with  all  his  skill  that  the  soil  lacks  nitrogen. 
And  it  is  the  same  with  the  other  constituents.  It  is  only  when  a 
soil  is  extremely  deficient  in  certain  plant-foods  that  an  analysis  shows 
the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

The  great  majority  of  all  soils,  good  and  poor  agriculturally,  differ  only 
in  narrow  limits  as  to  their  composition.  Every  soil  that  yields  well 
does  not  contain  more  plant-food  than  one  that  yields  less;  on  the 
other  hand,  many  soils  that  give  poor  yields  are  often  rich  -in  plant- 
food. 

Two  samples  of  soil  were  recently  examined  in  the  chemical  labora- 
tory. On  one  of  the  soils  alfalfa  grows  readily,  on  the  other  it  has 
failed.  It  might  seem  that  the  cause  could  be  discovered  by  analyzing 
the  two  samples.     Following  are  the  results :  — 

No.  1 ,  that  does  not  grow  alfalfa  No.  2,  that  grows  alfalfa 

Nitrogen  (N)  .     .     .  0.07  per  cent  Nitrogen  (N)     ....  0.07  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)    .  0.12  per  cent  Phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)    .  0.12  per  cent 

Potash  (K2O)    .     .     .     .0.14  per  cent  Potash  (K2O)     .     .     .     .0.13  per  cent 

Lime  (CaO)       .     .     .     .0.17  per  cent  Lime  (CaO)        ....  0.20  per  cent 

Magnesia  (MgO)        .     .  0.24  per  cent  Magnesia  (MgO)   .     .     .  0.22  per  cent 

Organic  matter  (humus)  3.45  per  cent  Organic  matter  (humus)  3.15  per  cent 

Soils  have  an  average  weight  of  2,000,000  lb.  per  acre  for  a  depth 
of  eight  inches,  and  the  composition  of  the  two  soils  by  weight  is  as 
follows :  — 

No.  1  No.  2 


.07  N           =    1,400  1b. 

per  acre. 

0.07  N           =    1,400  lb.  per  acre. 

.12  PA       =    2,400  1b. 

per  acre. 

0.12  P2O5       =    2,400  lb.  per  acre. 

.UKjO       =    2,800  1b. 

per  acre. 

0.13  K2O       =    2,600  lb.  per  acre. 

.17  CaO       =    3,400  lb. 

per  acre. 

0.20  CaO       =    4,000  lb.  per  acre. 

.24  MgO      =    4,800  lb. 

per  acre. 

0.22  MgO      =    4,400  lb.  per  acre. 

3.45  humus  =  69,000  lb. 

per  acre. 

3.15  humus  =  63,000  lb.  per  acre. 

56  CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS ;    AND    LIME 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  cliemical  composition  these  soils  are  practically 
identical,  and  yet  one  ^rows  good  alfalfa  and  one  does  not. 

This  shows  that  the  chemical  composition  is  not  always  the  deciding 
factor  in  fertility.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  rarely  the  deciding  factor. 
A  soil  that  showed  higher  amounts  of  plant-food  than  in  the  cases  cited 
above  gave  very  low  yields.  A  good  system  of  tile  drains  was  put  in 
this  field,  and  three  years  later  the  crops  were  very  large.  The  drain- 
ing produced  no  differences  in  the  chemical  content,  but  it  brought 
success.  Failure  may  be  due  in  other  cases  to  poor  tilth,  acidity,  bad 
rotations,  and  various  physical  causes. 

Chemical  anal3'ses  of  soils  are  valual^le  mainly  to  assist  in  con- 
ducting investigations  of  a  scientific  character.  With  the  present 
methods  they  are  of  little  use  as  a  means  of  deciding  what  fertilizer 
should  be  applied.  The  farmer  should  experiment  with  different  fer- 
tilizers, and  not  depend  on  a  chemical  examination  of  his  soil,  unless 
he  has  reason  to  think  that  he  has  a  very  special  problem.  The  wide- 
spread notion  that  chemical  analyses  of  soil  and  of  plant  will  tell  what 
fertilizers  to  add  and  what  crops  to  grow  is  erroneous. 

Field  tests  to  determine  fertilizer  needs  may  be  made  as  follows :  — 

The  field  should  be  plowed  before  the  plats  are  laid  out.  Then 
use  substantial  stakes  at  the  corners  of  the  plats  and  mark  them 
well.  It  would  be  well  to  leave  a  space  of  4  feet  between  each  two 
plats,  to  be  sure  that  the  plants  on  one  plat  cannot  feed  on  the  fer- 
tihzer  each  side  of  it. 

Do  not  lay  out  the  plats  on  land  that  has  been  manured  within  one 
year.  If  you  made  fertilizer  experiments  last  year,  do  not  use  the  same 
set  of  plats  again  this  season. 

The  following  diagram  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  plats,  with 
the  spaces  between,  each  plat  containing  25  of  an  acre :  — 


1.   PlatK.  15  1b.  Muriate 


r^«+„oK  100  lb.  lime 

P°*^«^  on  this  half 


2.  Plat  N.  15  lb.  nitrate 


soda 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


3.  Plat  P.  30  lb.  super 


phosphate  l^^^ 


ANALYSIS    OF  SUBSTANCES 


57 


4.  Plat  Blank. 


No  fer 


tilizer 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


5.  Plat  KN, 


15  lb.  muri 
15  lb.  nitra 


ate  potash 
te  soda 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


H 


6.  Plat  KP.     (mixed) 


15  lb.  muriate 
30  lb.  superph 


potash 
osphate 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


7.  Plat  NP. 


15  lb.  nitrate 
30  lb.  superp 


soda 
hosphate 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


Plat  NPK. 


(mixed) 


15  lb.  nitra 
15  lb.  muri 
30  lb.  super 


te  soda 
ate  potash 
phosphate 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


Plat  S. 


stable  manure 


100  lb.  lime 
on  this  half 


Eight  rods  long. 


Analyses  of  Various  Chemical  Fertilizer  and  Related  Materials 

Dissolved  Bone-Black 

This  material  is  a  superphosphate  prepared  by  treating  refuse  bone-black  from 
sugar  refineries  with  oil  of  vitriol,  which  renders  nearly  all  the  phosphoric  acid 
soluble  in  water. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid 14.55 

Reverted  phosphoric  acid 2.39 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 0.20 

Bone  Charcoal 

Moisture  at  100°  C 18.16  Reverted  phosphoric  acid    .     .  5.18 

Ash 72.24  Insoluble  phosphoric  acid    .     .  20.02 

Total  phosphoric  acid      .     .     .  25.58  Insoluble  matter 0.69 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid  .     .     .  0.38 


Ground  Bone.     (Two 

samples) 

Moisture  at  100°  C.  .     . 

Ash 

Total  phosphoric  acid     . 
Reverted  phosphoric  acid 
Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 

Nitrogen 

Insoluble  matter   .     .     . 

•     • 

.       3.97 

.     49.35 

19.49 

3.80 

15.69 

4.04 

0.78 

12.43 

64.21 

25.67 

6.20 

19.34 

2.68 

0.42 

58  CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS ;    AND   LIME 

Dried  Blood 
Moisture 15.02     Nitrogen 8.24 

Dry  Ground  Fish 

Moisture  at  100"  C 8.34 

Ash 37.76 

Total  phosphoric  acid 8.23 

Sohihlo  phosphoric  acid 0.10 

Rpvcrtcci  {)h()sphoric  acid 3.81 

Iii.sohible  phosphoric  acid 4.32 

XitroRon 6.81 

Insoluble  matter 0.82 

Sulfate  of  Ammonia 

This  article,  now  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  as  a  by-product  of  gas-works, 
usually  contains  over  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  the  equivalent  of  from  94  to  97 
per  cent  of  sulfate  of  ammonia.      The  rest  is  chiefly  moisture. 
Nitrogen 20.02     Equivalent  ammonia  ....     24.30 

Sulfate  of  Potash.     (Two  samples) 

The  double  sulfate  of  potash  and  magnesia  is  usually  sold  as  "sulfate  of 
potash." 

I.  II, 

Actual  potash 27.76         51.28 

Equivalent  sulfate  of  potash 51.3  94.80 

Sulfate  of  Magnesia 

Moisture  at  100*  C 29.01     Sulfuric  acid 30.35 

Magnesium  oxide 15.87     Insoluble  matter 6.29 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  mined  in  Chile  and  purified  there  before  shipment.  It 
usually  contains  about  16  per  cent  of  nitrogsn,  equivalent  to  97  per  cent  of  pure 
nitrate  of  soda.     It  contains,  besides,  a  little  salt  and  some  moisture. 

Moisture 0.35     Sulfate  of  soda 0.21 

Salt  (sodium  chloride)  ....     0.23     Pure  nitrate  of  soda    ....     99.21 

Muriate  of  Potash.     (Two  samples) 

Commercial  muriate  of  potash  consists  of  about  80  per  cent  of  muriate  of 
potash  (potassium  chlorid^)  ;  1.")  per  cent  or  more  of  common  salt  (sodium 
chloride),  and  4  per  cent  or  more  of  water. 

I  II 

Actual  potash .50.0         52.82 

Equivalent  muriate 79.2         83.70 

German  Potash  Salts  —  Average  of  11  Analyses 

Moisture  at  100*  C 13.14     Magnesium  oxide 9.25 

Pota.ssium  oxide 21.63     Sulfuric  acid 10.85 

Sodium  oxide 13.76  Chlorine     ....           .      .      .  35.63 

Calcium  oxide 0.85     Insoluble  matter 2.08 


ANALYSIS    OF  SUBSTANCES  69 


KA.INIT  —  Average  of  3  Analyses 

Moisture  at  100°  C 9.26     Magnesium  oxide 8.97 

Potassium  oxide 14.04     Sulfuric  acid 21.05 

Sodium  oxide 21.38     Chlorine 32.38 

Calcium  oxide 1.12     Insoluble  matter 0.89 


Land-Plaster  or  Gypsum 

Hydrated  sulfate  of  lime 74.88 

Matters  insoluble  in  acid 1.23 

Moisture 1.18 

Other  matters,  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime 22.66 


Ashes  (Wood),  Unleached 

Moisture  at  100°  C 15.72 

Calciurn  oxide 28.61 

Magnesium  oxide 3.00 

Ferric  oxide 1.03 

Potassium  oxide 8.72 

Phosphoric  acid 0.32 

Insoluble  matter,  before  calcination 18.49 

Insoluble  matter,  after  calcination 12.12 


Ashes  (Wood),  Leached 

Moisture  at  100°  C 13.72 

Calcium  oxide 26.90 

Magnesium  oxide 6.06 

Ferric  oxide 0.68 

Potassium  oxide 1.92 

Phosphoric  acid 1.79 

Insoluble  matter,  before  calcination 5.49 

Insoluble  matter,  after  calcination 2.57 


Coal  Ashes,  bituminous 

Water  5.0     Soda 0.4 

Organic  substance 5.0     Magnesia 3.2 

Ash 95.0     Phosphoric  acid 0.2 

Potash 0.4     Sulfuric  acid 8.5 


Coal  Ashes,  anthracite 

Water 5.0     Soda 0.1 

Organic  substance 5.0     Magnesia 3.0 

Ash 90.0     Phosphoric  acid 0.1 

Potash 0.1     Sulfuric  acid 5.0 


Gas-Lime  —  Average  of  4  Analyses 

Moisture  at  100°  C 22.28     Sulfur 20.73 

Calcium  oxide 42.66     Insoluble  matter 6.05 


60 


CHEMICAL    FKRTILIZKRS  ;   AND    LIME 


Seaweed.     (Two  samples)  I  jj 

Moistun-  at  100"  C 12.05  14.96 

XitroKi-n 1.66  1.28 

I'hosphoric  acid 0.44  0.17 

rotassiuin  oxide 3.81  0.36 

Calcium  oxide         2.73  3.86 

Magnesium  oxide 1-48  1.30 

Fertilizer  Formulas  for  Various  Crops 

There  is  no  exact  method  of  determining  the  fertiUzer  or  plant-food 
needs  of  the  various  crops.  Certain  guides  have  been  estabhshed, 
ho\ve\'er,  from  analyses  of  the  plants  and  other  means,  and  some  of 
tlic.se  block  formulas  are  given  here  for  the  information  of  the  con- 
sultant. The  careful  grower  will  make  tests  of  his  own  (see  p.  56), 
and  use  formulas  only  as  guides. 


Formulas  suggested  by  the  Maine  Experiment  Station. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  using  these  formulas  that  they  are  only 
suggestive  and  that  different  conditions  of  soil  make  such  diflferent 
treatment  essential  that  a  formula  which  may  prove  successful  on  one 
farm  may  not  be  equally  so  on  another.  In  no  case  is  it  to  be  expected 
that  fertilizers  will  take  the  place  of  good  tillage  and  care  of  crops. 


Weight 

USED 

PER  Acre 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Crop  \sv  Fertilizing  Materials 

Avail- 
able 

Total 

Potash 

Corn  on  sod  land  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  farm  manure: 

Nitrate  of  .soda 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

lb. 

100 
400 
150 

lb. 
16 

lb. 
52 

lb. 
56 

lb. 
75 

Total        ....... 

Percentage  composition 

650 

16 
2.5 

52 

8.0 

56 

8.6 

75 
11.5 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Screened  tankage      .... 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

100 
200 
300 
150 

16 
11 

15 
39 

32 

42 

75 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

750 

27 
3.6 

54 
7.2 

74 
9.9 

75 
10.0 

Nitrate  of  .soda 

Cotton.seed  meal        .... 

Acid  phosjjhate 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

100 
200 
400 
150 

16 
14 

52 

3 
56 

4 
75 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

850 

30 
3.5 

52 
6.1 

59 
7.0 

79 
9.3 

1 

" 

FER  TILIZER   RE  Q  UIREMEN  TS 


61 


Weight 

USED 

PER  Acre 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Crop  and  Fertilizing  Materials 

Avail- 
able 

Total 

Potash 

Grass  —  spring     seeding     with 
oats  as  a  nurse  crop  in  con- 
junction with  liberal  appli- 
cations of  farm  manure  :  ^ 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

lb. 

50 
200 
200 

lb. 

8 

lb. 
26 

lb. 

28 

lb. 
100 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

450 

8 
1.8 

26 

5.8 

28 
6.2 

100 
22.2 

Grass  —  spring     seeding     with 
oats  without  farm  manure  : 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Screened  tankage      .... 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

100 
500 
200 
250 

16 

28 

36 
26 

80 

28 

125 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

1050 

44 
4.2 

62 
5.9 

108 
10.3 

125 
11.9 

Grass  —  summer  or  fall  seeding 
with  farm  manure  (at  seed- 
ing) : 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate 

100 
75 



13 

14 

38 

Total        ....... 

Percentage  composition 

175 

13 

7.4 

14 

8 

38 
22 

The  following  spring  apply  — 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate 

100 
200 
200 

16 

26 

28 

100 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

500 

16 
3.2 

26 
5.2 

28 
5.6 

100 
20.0 

Gr.'ISS  —  summer  or  fall  seeding 
without   farm   manure    (at 
seeding) : 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Screened  tankage      .... 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

100 
400 
100 

16 
22 

29 

64 

50 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

600 

38 
6.3 

29 

4.8 

64 
10.7 

50 

8.3 

The  following  spring  apply  — 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate 

100 
200 
200 

16 

26 

28 

100 

Total        

Percentage  composition 

500 

16 
3.2 

26 
5.2 

28 
5.6 

100 
20.0 

1  If  desired  to  apply  by  machinery,  it  would  be  necessary  to  mix  with  about 
200  pounds  of  some  fine,  dry  material,  as  muck  or  loam. 


62 


CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS  ;   AND    LIME 


Crop  and  Fertilizing  Materials 


Weight 

USED 

PER  Acre 


350 
400 
250 


52 


56 


1000 


54 
5.4 


52 
5.2 


56 
5.6 


50 
400 
250 


52 


56 


700 


52 

7.4 


56 
8.0 


50 
400 
150 


52 


56 


600 


8 
1.3 


52 

8.7 


56 
9.3 


400 
400 
200 


64 


1000 


64 
6.4 


200 
800 


200 
200 
400 
200 
2000 


32 
44 


40 


58 


26 


116 

5.8 


84 
4.2 


128 


28 


156 

7.8 


GR.\sa— .spring  top-drossinRpjasi? 

land,  suKKfstrd  hy  the  Rluxlo 

Island  Mxpt'rinicnt  Station  : ' 
Nitrat(>  of  soda     .... 
Arid  phosphate     .... 
Muriate  of  potash     .      .     . 

Total        .     .      .      .      .      . 

Percentage  composition 

Clovers,  or  alfalfa,  without 

other  manure  and  on  hmd 

earrying  the  proper  root  tu- 

l)ercl'^  ()rKani.sms : 
Nitrate  of  so(hi     .... 
Acid  phosphate    .... 
Muriate  of  potash     . 

Total        

Percentage  composition 

Bean8  or  peas  without  other 
manure  on  soil  carrying  the 
proper  root  tubercle  organ- 
isms : 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

Mangolds    or    other    beets, 

based  upon  experiments  at 

the  Rothamstefi  (England) 

Experiment  Station   (to  be 

us(>d  in  conjunction  with  a 

liberal  dressing  of  farm  ma- 
nure) : 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Muriate  of  potash     .... 
Common  salt  ^      .  ... 

Total 

Percentage  composition 

Manoolds     or     other     beets 

without  farm  manure: 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Screened  tankage       .... 
Sulfate    r)f    animonia    (or  300 

pounds     high-grad"     dried 

blood) 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potasli     .... 
Common  salt         

Total 

Percentage  composition 

*  Rhode  Island  Sta.  Bui.  90.     '  Beets  are  successfully  grown  in  Maine  without  salt. 


Nitro- 
gen 


lb. 
54 


Phosphoric  Acid 


Avail- 
able 


lb. 


Total 


lb. 


FERTILIZER   REQUIREMENTS  63 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  purchasing  materials  for  these  home 
mixtures  to  buy  only  on  a  guaranty  of  composition  and  to  insist  that  the 
materials  shall  be  of  standard  high-grade  quality. 

Specific  mixtures  for  different  crops  (Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  Geneva, 
N.Y.,  14th  Kept.). 

In  the  following  tables  (pages  64  to  77),  Van  Slyke  gives 
formulas  for  various  crops  as  an  illustration  of  the  kinds  of  mixtures 
that  are  ordinarily  advised.  He  is  convinced,  however,  that  prac- 
tically all  purposes  would  be  satisfactorily  served  by  the  use  of  not 
more  than  a  half  dozen  different  formulas.  We  should  work  toward 
the  more  or  less  independent  handling  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and 
potassium  compounds,  using  them  separately  or  together  as  special 
conditions  and  the  results  of  observation  and  experience  may  suggest. 
This  is  possible,  of  course,  only  with  the  student  farmer.  For  the 
mass  of  farmers,  the  formal  recipe  or  the  commercial  mixture  must 
yet  form  the  basis  of  fertilizer  applications.  As  a  broad  statement 
to  guide  the  careful  farmer,  Van  Slyke  suggests  the  following :  — 

For  leguminous  crops,  a  formula  of  1-8-10  (in  the  order  of  nitrogen,  available 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash). 
For  cereals,  3-8-5. 

For  all  kinds  of  garden  crops,  4-8-10. 
For  grass  and  forage  crops,  4-6-9. 
For  orchards,  2-5-10. 
For  root-crops,  3-8-7. 

The  materials  that  are  given  for  use  in  the  succeeding  tables  are 
assumed  to  have  a  fairly  definite  composition,  and  the  calculations  are 
based  on  the  following  conditions  of  composition :  — 

(1)  Nitrate  of  soda,  95  to  96  per  cent  pure,  containing  16  per  cent 
of  nitrogen. 

(2)  Dried  blood,  containing  10  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

(3)  Sulfate  of  ammonia,  containing  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

(4)  Stable  manure,  containing  .5  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

(5)  Bone-meal,  containing  20  per  cent  of  total  phosphoric  acid, 
one-half  being  calculated  as  available  during  first  season  on  application ; 
also  containing  4  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

Whenever  bone-meal  is  used  in  a  mixture,  allowance  should  be  made  for 
its  nitrogen,  and  so  much  less  of  other  forms  of  nitrogen-materials  used. 


64 


CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS  ;   AND   LIME 


(f))  Dissolved  bono,  containing  15  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric 
acid  and  3  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

(7)  Dissolved  bone-black,  containing  15  per  cent  of  available  phos- 
phoric acid. 

(S)  Dissolved  rock,  containing  12  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid. 

(9)  Muriate  of  potash,  80  per  cent  pure,  containing  50  per  cent  of  potash. 

(10)  Sulfate  of  potash,  90   to  95  per   cent  pure,  containing  50  per 
cent  of  potash. 

(11)  Kainit,  containing  12  to  13  per  cent  of  potash. 

(12)  Wood-ashes,  containing  5  per  cent  of  potash. 

Alfalfa 


Nitrogen  . 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per  Cent 


10 


PorNDS 

FOR  One 

Acre 


5  to  10 


30  to  60 


40  to  80 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1)  30  to  60  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  :  or 

(2)  25  to  50  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  50  to  100  lb.  dried  blood  ;   or 

(4)  1000  to  2000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meal  ;   or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone-meal  or 

bone-black  ;    or 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  80  to  160  lb.  muriate  ;   or 

(2)  80  to  160  lb.  sulfate  ;   or 

(3)  325  to  650  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  800  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Apples 


Nitrogen    .     . 


Available     phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 

Cent 


PorNDS 

'forOne 
Acre 


12 


8  to  16 


30  to  60 


50 to  100 


Pounds  of  Different 
Materials  for  One  Acre 


(1)  50  to  100  lb.  nitrate  of 

.soda;   or 

(2)  40  to  80  lb.  sulphate  of 

ammonia;    or 

(3)  80    to    160    lb.    dried 

blood;    or 

(4)  1600  to  3200  lb.  stable 

manure, 
fd)  300    to    600   lb.   bone- 
meal  ;    or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved 

bono-meal    or    bone- 
black;    or 

(3)  2.50  to  .500  lb.  dissolved 

rock. 

(1)  100  to  200  lb.  muriate; 

or 

(2)  100  to  200  lb.  sulfate; 

or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  kainit;  or 

(4)  1000  to  2000  lb.  wood- 

ashes. 


Pounds  of  Different 
Materials  for  One  Tree 


(1)  1  to  2  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ; 

or 

(2)  H  to  VA  lb.  sulfate  of 

ammonia  ;    or 

(3)  IM  to  3  lb.  dried  blood; 

or 

(4)  35  to  70  lb.  stable  ma- 

nure. 

(1)  6    to  12  lb.  bone-meal; 

or 

(2)  4  to  8  lb.  dissolved  bone 

or  bone-black  ;    or 

(3)  5    to    10    lb.    dissolved 

rock. 

(1)  2  to  4  lb.  muriate  ;    or 

(2)  2  to  4  lb.  sulfate  ;    or 

(3)  8  to  161b.  kainit  ;    or 

(4)  20  to  40  lb.  wood-ashes. 


FORMULAS  FOR   DIFFERENT  CROPS 


65 


Asparagus 


Nitrogen 


Available    phc 
phoric  acid 


Potash 


Per  Cent 


Pounds 

for  One 

Acre 


20  to  40 


30  to  60 


35  to  70 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One  Ache 


(1)  120  to  240  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;   or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(3)  4000  to  8000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meal ;   or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone-meal  or 

bone-black ;   or 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  70  to  140  lb.  muriate;   or 

(2)  70  to  140  lb.  sulphate  ;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  kainit ;   or 

(4)  700  to  1400  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Barley 


Nitrogen   .     . 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 

Cent 


Pounds 

for  One 

Acre 


12  to  24 


20  to  40 


25  to  50 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1)  75  to  150  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  50  to  120  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  125  to  250  lb.  dried  blood;  or 

(4)  2500  to  5000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  200  to  400  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  150  to  300  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone- 

black  ;   or 

(3)  175  to  350  lb.  dissolved  rock. 
[(1)  50  to  100  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

(2)  50  to  100  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  kainit ;  or 

[  (4)  500  to  1000  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Beans 


Per 

Cent 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 

Potash       .     .     . 

1 
7 
9 

5  to  10 
30  to  60 
35  to  70 

(1)  30  to  60  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  25  to  50  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  or 

(3)  50  to  100  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  1000  to  2000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone 

black ;  or 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  70  to  140  lb.  muriate;  or 

(2)  70  to  140  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  kainit ;   or 

(4)  700  to  1400  lb.  wood-ashes. 

66 


CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS  ;  AND   LIME 


Beets 


Nitrogen   .     . 


Available     phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


20  to  40 


25  to  50 


35  to  70 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1)  120  to  240  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  100  to  200  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ; 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  dried  blood  ;   or 

(4)  4000  to  8000  lb.  stal)le  manure. 

(1)  250  to  500  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  175  to  350  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone- 

black  ;  or 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  70  to  140  lb.  muriate;   or 

(2)  70  to  140  1b.  sulfate;   or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  700  to  1400  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Blackberries 


Nitrogen   . 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


15  to  30 


30  to  60 


40  to  80 


Pounds  of  Different  M.'^^terials  for 
One  Acre 


[(1)  100  to  200  lb.  nitrate  of  soda;  or 
(2)  75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 
'  (3)  150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood  ;   or 
74)  3000  to  6000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meai ;  or 

I  (2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone- 
black  ;   or 
I  (3)  250  to  500  lb.  dis.solved  rock. 
'  (1)  80  to  160  lb.  muriate  ;   or 

(2)  80  to  160  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  kainit ;   or 
1(4)  800  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Buckwheat 


Per 
Cent 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 

Nitrogen   .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric  acid 

4 
8 

15  to  30 
30  to  60 

(1)  90  to  180  11).  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  75  to  150  11).  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  150  to  300  11).  dried  blood  ;   or 

(4)  3000  to  6000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone- 

black  ;    or      ; 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  70  to  140  lb.  muriate;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

9 

35  to  70 

(2)  70  to  140  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  kainit;  or 

(4)  700  to  1400  lb.  wood-ashes. 

FORMULAS   FOR  DIFFERENT   CROPS 


67 


Cabbage 


Nitrogen  . 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

for  One 

Acre 


40  to  80 


70  tol40 


90  to  180 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 

One  Acre 


'(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
,(4) 
1(1) 
(2) 

(3) 
(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
.(4) 


250  to  500  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 
200  to  400  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  c 
400  to  800  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
8000  to  16,000  lb.  stable  manure. 
700  to  1400  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 
500   to    1000   lb.    dissolved    bone 

bone-black ;    or 
600  to  1200  lb.  dissolved  rock. 
180  to  360  lb.  muriate  ;  or 
180  to  360  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 
700  to  1400  lb.  kainit ;  or 
1800  to  3600  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Carrots 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

C(l)  90  to  1801b.  nitrate  of  soda;  or 

Nitrogen   .     .     . 

3 

15  to  30 

1  (2)  75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 
)  (3)  150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
(4)  3000  to  6000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid     . 

C(l)  350  to  700  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

7 

35  to  70 

1  (2)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone- 
1              black;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

((1)  80  to  160  lb.  muriate;   or 

Potash       .     .     . 

8 

40  to  80 

J  (2)  80  to  160  lb.  sulfate;  or 
1  (3)  300  to  600  lb.  kainit ;  or 
[  (4)  8000  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Celery 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

r(l)  250  to  500  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

5 

40  to  80 

- 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  8000  to  16,000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 

(1)  500  to  1000  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

6 

50  to  100 

(2)  350  to  700  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone 
black  ;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  130  to  260  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

8 

65  to  130 

(2)  130  to  260  lb.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  500  to  1000  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  1300  to  2600  lb.    wood-ashes. 

68 


CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS  ;   AND   LIME 


Cauliflower 

Same  as  for  cabbage. 

Cherries 


«  S5 

u  u 


C3  K  B3 


Pounds  of  Different 
Materials  for  One  Acre 


Pounds  of  Different 
Materials  for  One  Tree 


Nitrogen    . 


Available     phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash       .     .     . 


10  to  20 


35  to  70 


45  to  90 


(1)  60  to  120  lb.  nitrate  of 

soda ;    or 

(2)  50  to  100  lb.  sulfate  of 

ammonia;   or 

(3)  100    to    200    lb.    dried 

blood  ;   or 

(4)  2000  to  4000  lb.  stable 

manure. 
f(l)  350  to   700    lb.    bone- 
meal  ;   or 

(2)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved 

bone,  etc. ;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  dissolved 

rock. 
'(1)  90  to  180  lb.  muriate;  or 

(2)  90  to    180   lb.    sulfate; 

or 

(3)  350  to  700  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  900  to   1800  lb.  wood- 

ashes. 


(1)  H    to   1    lb.   nitrate  of 

soda;   or 

(2)  H   to   1    lb.   sulfate  of 

ammonia ;   or 

(3)  1  to  2  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  20  to  40  lb.  stable  ma- 

nure. 

(1)  3H  to  7  lb.  bone-meal; 

or 

(2)  214   to  5   lb.   dissolved 

bone,  etc.  ;  or 

(3)  3  to  6  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  1  to  2  lb.  muriate;  or 

(2)  1  to  2   lb.  sulfate ;  or 

(3)  3>^  to  7  lb.  kainit;   or 

(4)  9  to  18  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Clover 

Same  as  for  alfalfa. 

Corn 


Per 

Pounds 

for  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

f(l)  60  to  120  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 

(2)  50  to  100  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia; 

Nitrogen  . 

2 

10  to  20 

or 
(3)  100  to  200  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
^  (4)  2000  to  4000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 

(1) 350  to  700  lb.  bone-moal  ;  or 

phoric  acid      . 

7 

35  to  70 

(2)  250  to  500  lb.  dis.solved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
I-  (3)  300  to  600  lb.  di.ssolved  rock. 
f(l)  60  to  120  11).  muriate;   or 

Pota.sh 

6 

30  to  60 

(2)  60  to  120  11).  sulfate;  or 

(3)  2.")0  to  500  11).  kainit  ;  or 

i  (4)  600  to  1200  lb.  wocd-ashes. 

For  sweet  corn,   somewhat  larger  amounts   of  nitrogen  may  be 
applied. 


FORMULAS  FOR  DIFFERENT  CROPS 


6\i 


Cucumbers 


Per 

Pounds  • 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

r  (1)  180  to  360  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

4 

30  to  60 

1  (2)  150  to  300  lb.   sulfate  of  ammonia; 
1              or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
r  (4)  6000  to  12,000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid      . 

6 

50  to  100 

(1)  500  to  1000  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  350  to  700  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  130  to  260  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

8 

65  to  130 

J  (2)  130  to  260  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 
1  (3)  500  to  1000  lb.  kainit ;  or 
[  (4)  1300  to  26,000  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Currants 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

(1)  60  to  120  lb.  nitrate  of  soda;  or 

(2)  50  to  100  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  or 

(3)  100  to  200  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

2 

10  to  20 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid     . 

I  (4)  2000  to  4000  lb.  stable  manure. 

5 

25  to  50 

f  (1)  250  to  500  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

\  (2)  175  to  350  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

i  (3)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  80  to  160  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

Potash.     .     .     . 

8 

40  to  80 

(2)  80  to  160 lb.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  320  to  640  lb.  kainit ;  or 

I  (4)  800  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Egg-Plant 


Nitrogen         .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash . 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


40  to  80 
50  to  100 

90  to  180 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials 
FOR  One  Acre 


f  (1)  240  to  480  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 
I  (2)  200  to  400  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
[  (4)  8000  to  16,000  lb.  stable  manure. 
f  (1)  500  to  1000  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 
i  (2)  350  to  700  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc  : 
I  (3)  400  to  800  lb.  dissolved  rock. 
f  (1)  180  to  360  lb.  muriate  ;   or 
I  (2)  180  to  360  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  700  to  1400  lb.  kainit ;  or 
I  (4)  1800  to  3600  lb.  wood-ashes. 


70 


CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS  :  AND   LIME 


Flax 


Nitrogen 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash .     . 


Per  Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


10  to  20 


25  to  50 


30  to  60 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One 
Acre 


(1)  fiO  to  120  11).  nitrate  of  soda;  or 

(2)  50  to  100  II).  sulfate  of  ammonia;  or 

(3)  100  to  200  II).  dried  blood;  or 

(4)  2000  to  4000  11).  stable  manure. 

(1)  250  to  500  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  175  to  350  lb.  dissolved  bone  or  bone- 

black  ;  or 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  60  to  120  lb.  muriate;  or 

(2)  60  to  1201b.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  600  to  1200  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Gooseberries 

Same  as  currants. 

Grapes 


Nitrogen 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per  Cent 


11 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


8  to  16 


30  to  60 


45  to  90 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One 
Acre 


(1)  50  to  100  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  40  to  80  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  80  to  100  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  1600  to  3200  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone,  et( 

or 
[  (3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  90  to  180  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

(2)  90  to  180  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  350  to  700  lb.  kainit;  or 

(4)  900  to  1800  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Grass  for  Pastures 


Nitrogen  . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per  Cent 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

2 

15  to  30 

8 

30  to  60 

10 

40  to  80 

1 

1 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One 
Acre 


(1)  90  to  180  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 

(2)  75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  3000  to  6000  II).  stable  manure, 
f  (1)  300t()C)00ll).  bone-meal;  or 

•I   (2)  200  to  400  II).  di.ssolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

(  (3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

f  (1)  SO  to  16011).  muriate;  or 

J   (2)  SO  to  1601b.  sulfate;  or 

,  (3)  275  to  550  lb.  kainit;  or 

I  (4)  800  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 


FORMULAS  FOR  DIFFERENT  CROPS 


71 


Grass  for  Lawns 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per  Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


20  to  4C 
25  to  50 
30  to  60 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One 
Acre 


(1)  120  to  240  lb.  nitrate  of  soda;  or 

(2)  100  to  200  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  or 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  4000  to  8000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  250  to  500  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  175  to  350  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  60  to  120  lb.  muriate;  or 

(2)  60  to  120  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  600  to  1200  lb.  wood-ashes. 


As  a  more  specific  mixture,  we  suggest  the  following :  100  lb.  nitrate 
of  soda,  100  lb.  bone-meal,  100  lb.  acid  phosphate  (dissolved  rock) 
and  100  lb.  muriate  of  potash  an  acre. 

Grass  for  Meadows 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash . 


Per  Cent 


Pounds 

for  One 

Acre 


15  to  30 
30  to  60 
35  to  70 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One 
Acre 


(1)  90  to  180  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

[  (4)  3000  to  6000  lb.  stable  manure. 
'  (1)  300  to  600  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  ( 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  70  to  140  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

(2)  70  to  140  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  275  to  550  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  700  to  1400  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Hops 


Nitrogen  . 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per     Pounds  for 
Cent     One  Acre 


20  to  40 

35  to  70 

100  to  200 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for  One 
Acre 


r  (1)  120  to  240  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

I  (2)  100  to  200  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

I   (3)  200  to  400  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

[  (4)  4000  to  8000  lb.  stable  manure. 

f  (1)  350  to  700  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

j  (2)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

[  (3)  275  to  550  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  200  to  400  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  800  to  1600  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  2000  to  4000  lb.  wood-ashes. 


72 


CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS ;   AND   LIME 


Horse  Radish 


Nitrogen 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 

Cent 


P0CND8 

FOR  One 

Acre 


15  to  30 


25  to  50 


35  to  70 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


'  (1)  90  to  ISO  11).  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  75  to  150  II).  sulfate  of  ammonia  ; 

(3)  ir)()t()3()()ll).  (Irie(ll)lood;  or 

[  (4)  ;i(l()()  to  tiOOO  II).  stable  manure. 

(1)  2r)()t() ')()()  11).  bone-meal;   or 

(2)  175  to  350  11).  dissolved  bone,  etc. 
t  (3)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  70  to  140  11).  muriate;  or 

(2)  70  to  1401b.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  275  to  550  lb.  kainit ;  or 

L  (4)  700  to  1400  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Lettuce 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


40  to  80 


50  to  100 


75  to  150 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1)  250  to  500  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  200  to  400  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  8000  to  16,000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  500  to  1000  lb.  bone-meal ;   or 

(2)  350  to  700  11).  dissolved  bone,  etc.  ;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  150  to  300  lb.  muriate;  or 

(2)  150  to  300  lb.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  600  to  1200  lb.  kainit ;  or ; 

(4)  1500  to  3000  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Millet 
Same  as  for  meadow  grass. 


MUSKMELONS 

Same  as  for  cucumbers. 


Nursery  Stock 


Nitrogen 


Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


10  to  20 


25  to  50 


30  to  60 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1)  60  to  120  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  50  to  100  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  100  to  200  lb.  dried  blood;  or 

(4)  2000  to  4000  11).  stable  manure. 

(1)  250  to  500  lb.  bone-meal  ;  or 

(2)  175  tf)  350  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

(3)  200  to  400  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  60  to  120  11).  muriate;  or 

(2)  ()0to  120  11).  sulfate;  or 

(3)  240  to  480  lb.  kainit ;  or 

I  (4)  600  to  1200  lb.  wood-ashes. 


FORMULAS  FOR  DIFFERENT  CROPS 


73 


Oats 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 

Cent 

One  Acre 

f  (1)  75  to  150  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

4 

12  to  24 

J  (2)  60  to  120  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 
1  (3)  120  to  240  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
(4)  2500  to  5000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 

f (1)  200  to  400  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

phoric  acid 

6 

20  to  40 

\  (2)  140  to  280  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
[  (3)  160  to  320  lb.  dissolved  rock, 
f  (1)  60  to  120  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

Potash.     .     .     . 

9 

30  to  60 

J  (2)  60  to  120  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 
1  (3)  250  to  500  lb.  kainit ;  or 
[  (4)  600  to  1200  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Onions 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


45  to  90 
55  to  110 
80  to  160 


Pounds  op  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1)  270  to  540  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

(2)  225  to  450  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ; 

(3)  450  to  900  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  9000  to  18,000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  550  to  1100  lb.  bone-meal;  or 

(2)  385  to  770  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. 

(3)  450  to  900  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  160  to  320  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

(2)  160  to  320  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

(3)  650  to  1300  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  1600  to  3200  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Parsnips 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

A  vailable    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


20  to  40 


55  to  110 


50  to  100 


fd) 

\   (2) 


(1)  120  to  240  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 
)  100  to  200  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia 

]  (3)  200  to  400  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
I  (4)  4000  to  8000  lb.  stable  manure. 
'  (1)  550  to  1100  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  375  to  750  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ; 

(3)  450  to  900  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  100  to  200  lb.  muriate  ;   or 

(2)  100  to  200  lb.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  1000  to  2000  lb.  wood-ashes. 


74 


CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS  ;   AND    LIME 
Peaches 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 

Cent 

One  Acre 

r  (1)  90  to  180  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

2 

15  to  30 

(2)  75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood;  or 

(4)  3000  to  GOOO  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 

r (1)  400  to  M)()  lb.  bono-nioal ;  or 

phoric  acid 

5 

40  to  80 

\  (2)  2S()to560lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
.  (3)  320  to  640  lb.  dissolved  rock. 
f  (1)  110  to  220  lb.  muriate;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

7 

55  to  110 

(2)  110  to  220  lb.  sulfate;  or 

(3)  450  to  900  lb.  kainit ;  or 

(4)  1 100  to  2200  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Pears 
Same  as  for  apples. 

Peas 
Same  as  for  beans. 

Plums 
Same  as  for  cherries. 

Potatoes 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 

Cent 

One  Acre 

r  (1)  180  to  360  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

4 

30  to  60 

(2)  150to3001b.  sulfate  of  ammonia;  or 
I  (3)  300  to  600  lb.  dried  blood. 

Available    phos- 

■ (1)  400  to  800  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

phoric  acid      . 

6 

40  to  80 

\  (2)  275  to  550  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
I  (3)  325  to  650  lb.  di.ssolved  rock, 
f  (1)  130  to  260  lb.  muriate;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

9 

65  to  130 

(2)  130  to  260  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 
I  (3)  520  to  1040  lb.  kainit. 

Pumpkins 

Same  as  for  cucumbers. 

Quinces 

Same  as  for  apples. 


FERTILIZERS   FOR   SPECIAL    CROPS 


75 


Radishes 


Nitrogen   .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 

Cent 


Pounds 
FOR  One 

Acre 


15  to  30 
35  to  70 
45  to  90 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

f  (1) 

i   (2) 

1(3) 

fd) 

(2) 

(3) 

I  (4) 


90  to  180  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  or 

150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood;  or 

3000  to  6000  lb.  stable  manure. 

350  to  700  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  o 

280  to  560  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

90  to  180  lb.  muriate  ;  or 

90  to  180  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

350  to  700  lb.  kainit ;  or 

900  to  1800  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Raspberries 


Per 

Cent 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 

r  (1)  75  to  150  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

2 

12  to  24 

(2)  60  to  120  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 
1  (3)  120  to  240  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
i  (4)  2400  to  4800  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 

(1) 400  to  800  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

phoric  acid      . 

7 

40  to  80 

\  (2)  280  to  560  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
I  (3)  320  to  640  lb.  dissolved  rock, 
f  (1)  120  to  240  lb.  muriate ;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

10 

60  to  120 

J  (2)  120  to  240  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 
(3)  480  to  960  lb.  kainit ;  or 
.  (4)  1200  to  2400  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Rye 
Same  as  for  oats. 


Sorghum 
Same  as  for  corn. 


Spinach 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 


Potash 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


15  to  30 
55  to  110 
40  to  80 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials  for 
One  Acre 


(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
(4) 

[  (1) 
(2) 

1(3) 

fd) 

!  (2) 

(3) 

(4) 


90  to  180  lb.  nitrate  of  soda ;  or 

75  to  150  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  or 

150  to  300  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

3000  to  6000  lb.  stable  manure. 

550  to  1 100  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

375  to  750  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

450  to  900  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

80  to  160  lb.  muriate;  or 

80  to  1601b.  sulfate;  or 

320  to  640  lb.  kainit ;  or 

800  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 


76 


CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS  ;   AND   LIME 


Squashes 

Same  as  for  cucumbers. 

Strawberries 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

r  (1)  150  to  300  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

Nitrogen  . 

3 

25  to  50 

J  (2)  125  to  2501b.  sulfate  of  ammonia;    or 
1   (3)  250  to  500  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
I  (4)  5000  to  10.000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    pnos- 

r  (1)  550  to  11001b.  I)()ne-meal ;  or 

phoric  acid     . 

7 

55  to  110 

\  (2)  375  to  750  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
i  (3)  450  to  900  lb.  dissolved  rock, 
f  (1)  140  to  280  lb.  muriate;  or 

Potash       .     . 

9 

70  to  140 

(2)  140  to  280  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 

j  (3)  550  to  1 100  lb.  kainit ;  or 
[  (4)  1400  to  2800  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Tobacco 


Nitrogen  .     .     . 

Available    phos- 
phoric acid 

Potash       .     .     . 


Per 
Cent 


Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 


30  to  60 

50  to  100 
80  to  160 


Pounds  of  Different  Materials 
FOR  One  Acre 


(1)  180to3601b.  nitrate  of  soda;  or 

(2)  150  to  300  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia  ;  or 

(3)  300  to  600  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 

(4)  6000  to  12,000  lb.  stable  manure. 

(1)  500  to  1000  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

(2)  350  to  700  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 

(3)  400  to  800  lb.  dissolved  rock. 

(1)  160  to  320  lb.  sulfate;  or 

(2)  1600  to  3200  lb.  wood-ashes. 


Tomatoes 


Pr,K 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

r  (1)  150  to  300  lb.  nitrate  of  soda;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

4 

25  to  50 

1  (2)  125to2501b.  sulfate  of  ammonia;  or 

(3)  250  to  500  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
I  (4)  5000  to  10,000  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 

r (1)  350  to  700  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

phoric  acid 

6 

35  to  70 

]  (2)  250  to  500  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
[  (3)  280  to  560  lb.  dissolved  rock. 
f  (1)  80  to  100  \h.  muriate  ;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

7 

40  to  80 

(2)  80  to  160  11).  .sulfate;   or 

(3)  320  to  640  lb.  kainit ;  or 

[  (4)  800  to  1600  lb.  wood-ashes. 

SPECIAL  FERTILIZERS,  -'LIME 


7? 


Turnips 
Same  as  for  beets. 

Watermelons 
Same  as  for  cucumbers. 


Wheat 


Per 

Pounds 

FOR  One 

Acre 

Pounds  of  Different  Materials 

Cent 

FOR  One  Acre 

r  (1)  75  to  150  lb.  nitrate  of  soda  ;  or 

J  (2)  60  to  120  lb.  sulfate  of  ammonia ;  or 

Nitrogen  .     .     . 

4 

12  to  24 

1  (3)  120  to  240  lb.  dried  blood  ;  or 
[  (4)  2400  to  4800  lb.  stable  manure. 

Available    phos- 

r (1)  200  to  400  lb.  bone-meal ;  or 

phoric  acid 

7 

20  to  40 

\  (2)  140  to  280  lb.  dissolved  bone,  etc. ;  or 
I  (3)  160  to  320  lb.  dissolved  rock, 
f  (1)  25  to  50  lb.  muriate ;  or 

Potash       .     .     . 

4 

12  to  24 

J  (2)  25  to  50  lb.  sulfate  ;  or 
1  (3)  100  to  200  lb.  kainit ;  or 
[  (4)  250  to  500  lb.  wood-ashes. 

Lime  for  the  Land 

Of  late  years  the  old  custom  of  liming  the  land  has  been  revived. 
It  is  now  found  that  lime,  or  other  alkaH,  is  needed  to  neutralize  the 
acidity  of  certain  soils. 

To  determine  whether  a  soil  is  acid,  and  therefore  probably  in  need  of 
lime  (Wheeler). 

By  litmus  paper  (to  be  secured  at  drug  store).  — -To  half  a  cup  of 
soil  add  water  until  it  is  like  thick  porridge,  and  then  insert  blue  litmus 
paper  without  handling  the  end  introduced  into  the  soil.  After  an 
hour  or  two,  remove  and  rinse  only  the  lower  end.  If  this  end  is  in- 
tensely reddened,  hming  is  probably  desirable.  The  color  is  pinkish  if 
much  acid  vegetable  matter  is  present;  but  if  it  is  not  present,  the 
color  may  be  brick-red. 

By  ammonia  ivater.  —  To  a  tablespoonful  of  soil  in  half  a  glass  of 
water  add  a  teaspoonf ul  or  more  of  dilute  ammonia  water ;  if  the  liquid 


78  CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS  ;   AND   LIME 

becomes  intensely  brown  after  standing  for  some  hours,  and  especially 
if  it  becomes  black,  the  probable  presence  of  acid  vegetable  matter  is 
indicated. 

When  a  soil  test  indicates  only  slight  acidity,  lime  may  not  be  needed 
for  most  plants. 

Application  oj  lime. 

On  sandy  soils,  500  lb.  of  lime  to  the  acre  may  be  sufficient.  On  soils 
very  rich  in  acid  organic  matter,  as  much  as  5000  to  6000  lb.  may  be 
needed.  Under  usual  conditions,  about  one  ton  to  the  acre  is  a  good 
dressing  (20  to  40  bu.,  with  30  bu.  perhaps  the  average).  The  legal 
weight  per  bushel  of  lime  is  70  lb.  in  some  states  and  80  lb.  in 
others. 

Some  persons  apply  lime  after  plowing  and  mix  it  into  the  soil 
with  the  harrow ;  others  apply  in  fall  and  follow  by  spring  plowing. 

Forms  of  lime  (Fippin). 

In  a  pure  form,  the  calcium  equivalent  in  100  lb.  of  lime  is  about  a? 
follows  (Ca  is  calcium ;   0,  oxygen ;   H,  hydrogen) :  — 

r*T/^TTT«   TAi  EQUIVALE>fT   IN 

inn^»  Composition  to 

lUU  LB.  jQQ  j^g    L^j^p  Ljj^^ 

(a)  CaO,    Lump    lime,    freshly    burned    lime, 

quirklime 71  100 

(6)   Ca(OH;j,    Hydrated     lime,     water-slaked 

lime 54  132 

(c)   CaCOj,  Lime   carbonates,  air-slaked  lime, 

ground  limestone,  marl 40  180 

id)  CaSO^  +  2H2O,  Gypsum,  land  plaster    .     .  23  310 

(e)   Ca3(P04)i,    Lime  phosphate,  ground  phos-  38  Pure  187 

phato  rork 39    25%  CaCOa     181 

CO   CaH«(P04),  +  CaSO*.      Acid       phosphate 

(15%  PjOr.) 23  310 

ia)   (CaO)4Pj06,  Basic  slag,  Tomas  phosphate 

powder 43  165 

{h)  Ashes  (containing  quicklime) 15  to  30  450 

Strictly  speaking,  the  lime  manufacturers  are  concerned  with  only 
the  first  three  fonns,  but  these  must  compete  to  some  extent  with  other 
forms.  Phosphate  fertilizers  may  sometimes  owe  their  benefits  to 
their  lime  contents.  The  same  result  might  then  be  secured  at  much 
less  cost  from  lime. 


AGRICULTURAL  LIME 


79 


Fineness  of  division  of  lime  (Fippin). 

The  finer  the  Hme  (the  smaller  the  particles)  the  greater  its  availa- 
bility. Considering  the  calcium  content,  first  cost,  freight,  and  fineness, 
it  is  often  better  to  use  the  lump  or  hydrated  or  ground  lime  than  the 
ground  limestone  or  marl;  the  lump  quicklime  slakes  into  very  fine 
particles  when  applied  to  the  soil.  It  is  impossible  to  attain  the  same 
degree  of  fineness  by  grinding  that  is  attained  by  burning  and  slaking. 
Seventy-five  per  cent,  at  least,  of  the  ground  material  should  pass  a 
100-mesh  screen.  The  larger  the  percentage  of  coarse  material,  the 
larger  the  amount  necessary  to  get  the  same  net  effect.  Considering 
composition  and  fineness  as  commonly  found  on  the  market,  50  lb.  of 
lump  hme  is  equivalent  approximately  to 

60  lb.  hydrated  lime. 
100  lb.  air-slaked  lime. 
250  lb.  ground  limestone  or  marl. 


Classification  of  lime  for  agricultural  purposes. 


(1)   High  Calcium 


Agreement  between  the  Directors  of  the  New  England  and  New  Jersey  Ex- 
periment Stations  and  the  Special  Committee  of  the  National  Lime  Manufac- 
turers' Association  of  Boston,  March  3,  1909. 

(Must  contain  93% 
combined  oxides 
and  hydrates  and 
all  pass  a  standard 
100-mesh  sieve. 

(1)  Hydrate    \  fMust  contain  not 

less  than  90% 
combined  oxides, 
hydrates,  an  J  car- 
bonates, of  which 
not  over  25%  shall 
be  carbonates. 
Must  contain  90% 
combined  oxides 
and  carbonates,  of 

^-,   ^  which    not    more 

(2)  Caustic     \  (2)  Fines         \  than  10%  shall  be 
L  (3)  Ground        carbonates,  except 

LIME  \  ing  Ground,  which 

may  contain  20% 
I,  carbonates. 

(Must  contain  90% 
combined  carbon- 
ates and  pass  50- 
mesh  sieve. 


(2)  Land 


(2)   Dolomitic 

or 
High  Magnesium 


(3)   Ground  Limestone 


(4)  Kiln  Slaked 


(Not      guaranteed, 
contains  core, 

ashes,  and  refuse. 


80  CHEMICAL    FERTILIZERS ;   AND   LIME 

All  shipments  except  Kiln  Slaked  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  state- 
ment showing  (1)  proper  class  name  and  (2)  guaranteed  analj'sis,  in 
which  the  respective  percentages  of  calcium  and  magnesium  oxides  are 
given. 

Package  shipments  to  show  class  and  analysis  on  each  package. 

Bulk  shipments  to  have  class  and  analysis  statement  attached  either 
to  invoice  or  imier  side  of  the  car. 

All  lime  to  be  sold  by  weight  cwt.  or  ton. 

Analyses  to  be  those  at  kiln,  and  guaranteed. 

Other  tests  for  the  need  of  lime  (Fippin). 

There  is  no  simple  method  for  accurately  determining  the  need  of 
lime.  The  use  of  strips  of  blue  litmus  in  the  wet  soil  and  their  distinct 
change  to  a  pink  color  in  a  half -hour  is  one  common  test  that  is  indica- 
tive of  such  need.  Strips  of  blue  and  red  litmus  paper  may  be  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  a  drinking  glass  and  covered  with  white  filter  paper  or 
blotting  paper  on  which  is  placed  the  soil  to  be  tested.  The  soil  is  then 
moistened  with  clear  rain  water  until  the  paper  becomes  damp.  This 
is  a  more  exact  test  than  the  direct  application  of  litmus  paper  to  the 
soil. 

Another  method  of  determining  the  presence  of  free  bases  is  to  put  on 
the  soil  a  drop  of  muriatic  acid  diluted  four  or  five  times.  If  there  is 
any  perceptible  bubbling,  or  effervescence,  this  indicates  the  presence 
of  sufficient  lime.  Should  lime  be  shown  in  the  subsoil  but  none  in  the 
soil,  a  moderate  application  of  lime  is  likely  to  be  beneficial. 

The  best  indication  of  the  need  for  lime  is  the  type  of  plant  growth 
that  the  soil  bears.  The  vigorous  gro\\^h  of  lime-loving  plants,  such 
as  alfalfa,  clover,  and  the  scab  of  potatoes,  indicates  the  presence  of 
sufficient  lime ;  while  the  absence  or  weak  growth  of  plants  of  this  kind, 
and  the  predominance  of  such  plants  as  horse  sorrel,  white  daisy,  and 
redtop,  indicate  a  need  for  lime. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Farm  Manures,  and  Similar  Materials 

Animals  are  among  the  most  essential  agents  in  the  maintaining 
of  the  fertihty  of  the  land.  Farm  manures  are  of  great  value,  not 
only  for  the  plant-food  they  contain,  but  for  the  humus  that  they 
contribute  and  the  organisms  that  they  carry. 

Composition  and  Characteristics  of  Manures  (Brooks) 

Cattle  manure. 

For  practical  purposes,  one  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  in  estimating 
well-kept  barnyard  (or  cattle)  manure  to  contain  one-half  of  one  per 
cent  each  of  nitrogen  and  potash,  and  one-third  of  one  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid.  On  this  basis,  a  ton  of  manure  would  contain  10  lb. 
each  of  nitrogen  and  potash,  and  6§  lb.  of  phosphoric  acid.  A  cord 
of  well-preserved  manure  kept  without  loss  of  urine  and  without  ex- 
posure to  the  weather  will  weigh  a  little  more  than  three  tons.  A 
cord  of  such  manure,  therefore,  should  contain  about  thirty  pounds 
of  nitrogen  and  potash  and  twenty  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Stable  or  horse  manure. 

The  manure  from  horses  is  generally  more  valuable  than  that  from 
the  other  larger  domestic  animals,  excepting  sheep,  provided  it  has 
been  well  kept.  It  is  richer  in  nitrogen,  and  usually  also  in  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash,  than  the  manure  of  either  cattle  or  hogs.  It  contains 
relatively  little  water,  and  ferments  rapidly. 

Experiments  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  showed  horse  manure 
to  have  the  following  composition :  water,  48.69  per  cent ;  nitrogen,  0.49 
per  cent;  phosphoric  acid,  0.26  per  cent;  potash,  0.48  per  cent. 
Plaster  was  very  freely  used  in  this  experiment,  and  this  doubtless 
reduced  the  percentages,  so  that  the  figures  are  undoubtedly  below 
the  average. 

G  81 


82  FARM  MANURES,   AND   SIMILAR   MATERIALS 

Sheep  manure. 

Sheep  manure  is  generally  accumulated  under  the  animals  with 
sufficient  litter  to  keep  the  latter  dry  and  clean.  Under  these  condi- 
tions, there  is  commonly  no  appreciable  loss  either  of  urine  or  of  am- 
monia because  of  excessive  fermentation.  The  amount  of  urine  voided 
by  sheep  is  relatively  small,  and  the  elements  of  value  in  shoej)  manure 
ordinarily  suffer  less  loss  than  is  common  in  the  case  of  other  kinds  of 
farm  manure.  When  sheep  manure  is  finally  removed  from  the  pens 
and  put  into  loose  piles,  as  is  often  the  case,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
worked  into  suitable  mechanical  condition  to  spread,  it  very  rapidly 
undergoes  decomposition,  and  heats  quickly.  It  is  then  likely  to  lose 
a  part  of  its  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  To  prevent  this,  it  is 
well  to  scatter  kainit  or  land-plaster  as  the  pile  is  built  up.  The  aver- 
age of  four  analyses  of  sheep  manure  made  at  the  Massachusetts 
Experiment  Station  showed  it  to  contain :  water,  .2922  per  cent ; 
nitrogen,  1.44  per  cent;  phosphoric  acid,  .92  per  cent;  potash,  1.17 
per  cent.  Sheep  manure  is  now  sometimes  collected,  dried,  and  ground, 
and  put  on  the  market  as  sheep  guano.  In  this  form  it  is  a  concentrated 
manure,  especially  valuable  for  dressing  lawns,  for  use  in  hothouses, 
and  like  purposes. 

Hog  manure. 

The  manure  made  from  swine  undoubtedly  varies  more  widely 
than  that  from  the  other  domestic  animals,  because  of  the  wider  varia- 
tions in  the  nature  of  their  food  and  the  conditions  under  which  they 
are  kept.  The  excrements  of  swine  on  most  farms  are  not  kept  by 
themselves  but  are  mixed  with  other  manures,  and  this  in  general 
would  seem  to  be  the  better  system  of  management.  Hog  manure, 
if  kept  by  itself,  is  relatively  watery,  and  is  usually  poor  in  nitrogen  and 
rich  in  phosphoric  acid.  It  decomposes  slowly,  and  must  be  ranked 
as  a  cold  manure. 

Comparison  of  Manure  from  Different  Animals  (Brooks) 

Having  made  separate  statements  on  the  qualities  and  character- 
istics of  the  manure  from  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  swine,  we  may 
now  compare  these  manures  in  tabular  form :  — 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  MANURES 


83 


Composition  of  fresh  excrement  of  farm  quadrupeds. 
One  thousand  pounds  of  fresh  dung  contain :  — 


Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Alkalies 

Horse 

Cow 

Swine 

Sheep 

760 
840 
800 
580 

5.0 
3.0 
6.0 
7.5 

3.5 
2.5 
4.5 
6.0 

3.0 
1.0 
5.0 
3.0 

One  thousand  pounds  of  fresh  urine  contain : 


Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Alkalies 

Horse 

890 

12.0 

0.0 

15.0 

Cow 

920 

8.0 

0.0 

14.0 

Swine 

975 

3.0 

1.25 

2.0 

Sheep 

865 

14.0 

0.5 

20.0 

The  potash  of  both  the  dung  and  the  urine  is  included  with  Hme, 
magnesia,  and  other  elements,  to  make  up  the  so-called  "  alkalies." 

Composition  of  drainage  liquors. 
One  thousand  pounds  contain :  — 


Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Drainage  from  gutter 
behind  milch  cows  . 

Drainage  from  manure 
heap 

932 

820 

9.8 
15.0 

2.4 
1.0 

8.8 
49.0 

The  figures  presented  in  this  last  table  are  based  on  analyses  made 
at  the  Hatch  Experiment  Station,  Amherst,  Mass.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  these  liquors  are  richer  both  in  nitrogen  and  in  potash  than  the 
average  of  farm  manures. 


84 


FARM  MANURES,  AND   SIMILAR  MATERIALS 


Composition  of  litter. 

One  ton  contains  in  pounds 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Wheat  straw    .     , 
Rye  straw    .     . 
Oat  straw    .     .     , 
Barley  straw    . 
Pea  straw    .     . 
Soy  bean  straw 
Buckwheat  straw 
Millet  straw     . 
Marsh  hay  .     . 
Ferns       ... 
Leaves    ... 


9.6 
11.2 
14.4 
11.4 
20.8 
14.0 
13.0 
14.0 
17.2 
00.0 
15.0 


4.4 
5.1 
3.6 
5.0 
7.0 
5.0 
7.1 
3.6 
10.6 
7.4 
3.2 


16.4 
18.1 
23.0 
23.5 
19.8 
22.0 
24.2 
34.0 
54.0 
37.2 
6.0 


Poultry  manures. 

Poultry  manures  are  richer  than  the  other  farm  manures  when  well 
preserved.  There  are  two  principal  reasons  for  this:  First,  the  food 
is  richer,  as  a  rule ;  and  second,  the  excretion  corresponding  to  the  urine 
of  the  larger  domestic  animals  is  semi-solid,  voided  with  the  dung,  and 
not  subject  to  direct  loss.  Poultry  manures  as  a  rule  are  rich  in  nitro- 
gen and  phosphoric  acid,  because  the  foods  given  the  fowls  are  rich 
in  these  elements.  These  manures  are  relatively  poor  in  potash,  al- 
though they  may  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  this  element  than 
do  the  other  farm  manures.  The  composition  is  subject  to  wide 
variation.    The  table  shows  the  results  of  analyses :  — 


Water 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Hon  manure,  fresh,  according  to  Storer  .     . 
Hen  manure,  fresh,  analysis  by  Goessmann 
Hen  manure,  dry,  average  two   analyses, 
Goessmann 

Per  cent 
56.00 
52.35 

8.35 
56.60 
77.10 
52.00 

Per  cent 
1.60 
0.99 

2.13 
1.00 
0.55 
1.75 

Per  cent 
1.50-2.00 
0.74 

2.02 

1.40 

0.54 

1.75-2.00 

Per  cent 

0.80-0.90 

0.25 

0  994 

Duck  manure,  fresh,  according  to  Storer     . 
Goose  manure,  fresh,  according  to  Storer   . 
Pigeon  manure,  according  to  Storer   .     .     . 

0.62 

0.95 

1.0-1.25 

HOW   TO    USE  MANURES  85 

Poultry  manure  ferments  very  quickly,  and,  as  frequently  handled, 
loses  much  of  its  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  compounds  of  ammonia,  which 
are  rapidly  formed  and  which  escape  into  the  air  unless  means  to  pre- 
vent are  taken.  The  mixture  of  poultry  manures  with  such  materials 
as  land-plaster,  kainit,  acid  phosphate,  or  superphosphate  plaster  is 
almost  imperative  for  satisfactory  preservation.  Often  dry  earth  or 
powdered  dry  muck  or  dry  sawdust  are  also  excellent  materials  to  mix 
with  it.  If  kainit  alone  is  used,  poultry  manure  remains  very  moist, 
and  will  be  found  difficult  of  application.  As  a  result  of  experiments 
in  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  it  is  concluded  that  the 
annual  excreta  collected  beneath  the  roosts  per  adult  barnyard  fowl 
will  amount  to  about  30  to  45  lb.,  according  to  the  breed. 

Utilization  of  Manures 

Rate  of  production  (Roberts  and  Brooks). 

Extended  investigations  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  showed 
that  the  following  amounts  of  excrements  were  produced  daily  for  each 
1000  lb.  of  live  weight  of  animal :  — 

Lb. 

Sheep 34.1 

Calves 67.8 

Pigs 83.6 

Cows 74.1 

Horses 48.8 

Fowls 39.8 

Total  excrements 348.2 

Total  manure       388.0 

If  straw  bedding  be  added,  which  is  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  ex- 
crements in  potential  manurial  value,  it  will  be  seen  how  large  a 
quantity  of  manure  is  produced  from  6000  lb.  of  mixed  live-stock. 
A  dairy  of  twenty  1000-lb.  cows  comfortably  fed  would  produce, 
in  the  six  winter  months,  133^  tons  of  excrement,  or  146|  tons  of 
manure.  Animals  fed  a  highly  nitrogenous  ration,  say  1:4  (as  were  the 
pigs  in  the  above  mvestigation),  consume  large  quantities  of  water, 
and  hence  produce  large  quantities  of  excrements,  especially  liquid, 
the  weight  of  which  usually  exceeds  the  weight  of  food  consumed ; 
while  those  fed  on  a  wide  ration,  say  1 :  9,  consume  comparatively 
little  water,  and  hence  produce  less  weight  of  excrements. 

The  experienced  farmer  will  know  from  the  results  of  earlier  years 


86  FARM  MANURES,   AND   SIMILAR  MATERIALS 

about  the  quantity  of  manure  that  will  be  made  from  a  given  number  oi 
animak  For  a  beginner,  some  rule  whereby  the  amount  to  be  made 
can  be  estimated  with  reasonable  accuracy  will  be  useful.  As  the 
result  of  careful  experiments,  German  investigators  give  the  following 
rules  to  determine  the  quantity  of  manure  that  will  be  made :  Multiply 
the  dry  matter  in  the  food  consumed  by  the  different  classes  of  farm 
animals  by  the  following  factors :  for  the  horse,  by  2.1 ;  for  the  cow,  by 
3.S ;  for  the  sheep,  by  1.8.  To  the  product,  in  any  case,  add  the  weight 
of  the  bedding  used.  The  horse  of  average  size  consumes  daily  about 
24  lb.  of  dry  matter,  and  makes,  therefore,  2.1  times  24  lb.,  or  50  lb.,  of 
manure  daily.  The  cow  of  average  size  consumes  daily  about  25  lb. 
of  dry  matter,  and  makes  3.8  times  25  lb.,  or  95  lb.,  of  manure  daily. 
A  125-lb.  sheep  consumes  about  3  lb.  of  dry  matter  daily,  and  makes 
1.8  times  3  lb.,  or  5.4  lb.,  of  manure  daily. 

Use  of  manures. 

A  thousand  pounds  of  wheat,  I63  bu.,  and  2000  lb.  of  straw  (an 
average  crop  per  acre)  require  27  lb.  of  nitrogen,  12.4  lb.  of  phosphoric 
acid,  17.9  lb.  of  potash.  Ten  tons  of  fresh  unrotted  manure  from 
horses  and  cattle  fed  a  moderate  grain  ration  contain  136  lb.  of  nitrogen, 
44  lb.  of  phosphoric  acid,  120  lb.  of  potash.  In  farm  practice  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  first  crop  grown  after  manuring  may  utilize,  under 
favorable  conditions,  one-half  of  the  plant-food  contained  in  the  manure 
applied.  The  plant-food  available  in  ten  tons  of  good  fresh  manure  is : 
nitrogen  68  lb.,  phosphoric  acid,  22  lb.,  potash,  60  lb.  Thirty  bushels 
of  wheat  and  2600  lb.  of  straw  require,  approximately,  46  lb.  of  nitrO' 
gen,  21  lb.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  27  lb.  of  potash  {Roberts). 

Manures  are  frequently  wasted  by  being  applied  too  liberally.  It 
is  not  economical,  except  for  special  crops  or  special  conditions,  to 
apply  as  much  as  thirty  to  forty  two-horse  loads  or  tons  per  acre  at  one 
time.  For  usual  farm  purposes,  ten  to  twenty  tons,  or  ten  to  twenty 
two-horse  loads,  is  a  liberal  application  per  acre.  It  is  best  to  apply  it 
as  it  is  made,  if  the  land  is  not  in  a  growing  crop.  The  manure 
should  be  spread  directly  from  the  wagon,  or  a  manure-spreader  be  used. 

Commercial  value  (Roberts). 

The  value  of  manure  in  the  fallowing  tables  is  determined  by  in- 
vestigation   during  the  winter  months,  and  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric 


VALUE    OF  MANURES 


87 


acid,  and  potash  are  computed  at  15,  6,  and  4i  cents  per  pound,  re- 
spectively (see  prices,  p.  47).  The  indirect  benefits  of  manures  may 
be  considered  an  equal  offset  for  the  slightly  less  availability  of  their 
plant-food  constituents  as  compared  with  fertilizers :  — • 

Kind  of  Manure  Value  per  Ton 

Sheep $2.30 

Calves 2.17 

Pigs        2.29 

Cows 2.02 

Horses 2.21 

Limited  amounts  of  bedding  were  used  in  the  tests  "rom  which  the  above 
figures  were  made.  The  plant-food  in  straw  is  not  so  quickly  available 
as  it  is  in  the  excrement  of  animals. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  value  of  manure  from  different 
animals  of  average  or  aggregate  weight  of  1000  pounds :  — 

Kind  of  Animals  Value  per  Year 

Fowls S51.10 

Sheep 26.09 

Calves 24.45 

Pigs 60.88 

Cows 29.27 

Horses 27.74 

Manurial  value  of  a  ton  of  the  usual  bedding  material  computed  as 
above : — 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 

Acid 

Potash 

Total 

Barley  straw 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat 

$1.65 
1.38 
1.47 
1.44 

$0.34 
0.33 
0.30 
0.26 

$1.74 
1.59 
0.77 
0.57 

$3.73 
3.30 
2.54 
2.27 

Losses  by  leaching  (Roberts). 

Manures  exposed  at  Ithaca  in  loose  heaps  of  two  to  ten  tons  for  six 
months  showed  loss  of  values  as  follows :  —  p^^  ^^^^ 

1889  horse  manure 42 

1890  horse  manure 62 

1890  cow  manure 30 

1889  mixed  manure  (compacted) 9 

In  other  cases,  when  small  quantities  of  gypsum  were  mixed  with  the 
manure,  the  losses  were  notably  diminished. 


88 


FARM  MANURES,    AND    SIMILAR    MATERIALS 


Further  Analyses  of  Animal  Excrements 
Common  barnyard  manure,  fresh 


Water 710.0 

Organic  substance 

Ash 

Nitrogen        

Potash 

Soda 


no.o 

Lime 

.     .       5.7 

»40.0 

Magnesia 

.     .       1.4 

44.1 

Phosphoric  acid    .     .     .     . 

.     .       2.1 

4.5 

Sulfuric  acid 

.     .       1.2 

5.2 

Silica  and  sand     .     .     .     . 

.     .     12.5 

1.5 

Chlorine  and  fluorine    . 

.     .       1.5 

Common  barnyard  manure,  moderately  rotted 


Water 750.0 

Organic  substance 192.0 

Ash 58.0 

Nitrogen 5.0 

Potash 6.3 

Soda 1.9 


Lime 7.0 

Magnesia 1.8 

Phosphoric  acid 2.6 

Sulfuric  acid 1.6 

Silica  and  sand 16.8 

Chlorine  and  fluorine    ....  1.9 


Common  barnyard  manure,  thoroughly  rotted 


Water  .  .  . 
Organic  substance 
Ash  .... 
Nitrogen  .  .  . 
Potash  .  .  . 
Soda     .... 


790.0     Lime 8.8 

145.0     Magnesia 1.8 

65.0     Phosphoric  acid         3.0 

5.8     Sulfuric  acid 1.3 

5.0     Silica  and  sand 17.0 

1,3  Chlorine  and  fluorine    ....  1.6 


Cattle-feces,  fresh 


Water  .  .  . 
Organic  substance 
Ash  .... 
Nitrogen  .  .  . 
Potash  ... 
Soda     .... 


838.0  Lime       .     .     . 

145.0  Magnesia    .     . 

17.3  Phosphoric  acid 

2.9  Sulfuric  acid    . 

1.0  Silica  and  sand 

0.2  Chlorine  and  fluorine 


3.4 
1.3 

1.7 
0.3 
7.2 
0.2 


Cattle-urine,  fresh 


Water 938.0 


Organic  substance 
Ash       .... 
Nitrogen  .     .     . 
Potash.     .     .     . 
Soda     .... 


35.0 

27.4 

5.8 

4.9 

6.4 


Lime. 0.1 

Magnesia 0.4 

Sulfuric  acid 1.3 

Silica  and  sand 0.3 

Chlorine  and  fluorine     ....  3.8 


Water  .  .  . 
Organic  substance 
Ash  .... 
Nitrogen  .  .  . 
Potash  .  .  . 
Soda     .... 


Horse-feces,  fresh 

757.0  Lime 1.5 

211.0  Magnesia 1.2 

31.6  Phosphoric  acid 3.5 

4.4  Sulfuric  acid 0.6 

3.5  Silica  and  sand 19.6 

0.6  Chlorine  and  fluorine    ....  0.2 


ANALYSES    OF  MANURES 


89 


Horse-urine,  fresh 


Water        901.0 

Organic  substance       .     .     .     .  71.0 

Ash 28.0 

Nitrogen        15.5 

Potash 15.0 

Soda 2.5 


Lime 

.     .       4.5 

Magnesia 

.     .       2.4 

Sulfuric  acid 

.     .       0.6 

Silica  and  sand     .... 

.     .       0.8 

Chlorine  and  fluorine    .     . 

.     .       1.5 

Water       .     .     . 
Organic  substance 
Ash       .... 
Nitrogen  . 
Potash      .     .     . 
Soda     .... 


Sheep-feces,  fresh 

655.0     Lime 4.6 

314.0     Magnesia 1.5 

31.1     Phosphoric  acid ,  3.1 

5.5     Sulfuric  acid 1.4 

1.5     Silica  and  sand 17.5 

1.0  Chlorine  and  fluorine    ....  0.3 


Sheep-urine,  fresh 


Water 872.0 

Organic  substance 

Ash 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Soda 


?72.0 

Lime 

.     .       1.6 

83.0 

Magnesia 

.     .       3.4 

45.2 

Phosphoric  acid   .     .     .     . 

.     .       0.1 

19.5 

Sulfuric  acid 

.     .       3.0 

22.6 

Silica  and  sand     .     .     .     . 

.     .       0.1 

5.4 

Chlorine  and  fluorine    .     . 

.     .       5.5 

Swine-feces,  fresh 


Water 820.0 

Organic  substance       .     .     . 

Ash 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Soda 


820.0 

Lime 

.     .       0.9 

150.0 

Magnesia 

.     .       1.0 

30.0 

Phosphoric  acid   .... 

.     .       4.1 

6.0 

Sulfuric  acid 

.     .       0.4 

2.6 

Silica  and  sand     .... 

.     .     15.0 

2.5 

Chlorine  and  fluorine    .     . 

.     .       0.3 

Swine-urine,  fresh 


Water 

.     967.0 

.       28.0 
15  0 

Soda 

.     .       2.1 

Organic  substance       .     .     . 

Magnesia 

Phosphoric  acid  .... 

Siilfiin'o  nniH 

.     .       0.8 
.     .       0.7 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

4.3 
8.3 

.     .       0.8 

Chlorine  and  fluorine    .     . 

.     -       2.3 

Peruvian  guano 

Moisture  at  100°  C.    .     .     , 
Total  phosphoric  acid 
Soluble  phosphoric  acid 
Reverted  phosphoric  acid     . 
Insoluble  phosphoric  acid     . 
"Potassium  oxide     .... 

.     12.17 
.     18.45 
1.54 
.       5.92 
.     10.99 
.       3.46 

Total  nitrogen    .... 
Actual  ammonia     .     .     . 
Organic  nitrogen     .     .     . 
Nitrogen  as  nitric  acid     . 
Insoluble  matter     .     .     . 

.     .       5.13 
.     .       3.94 
.     .       0.86 
.     .       0.33 
.     .     13.64 

90 


FJR.\f  yfANURES,   AND    SUflLAR   MATERIALS 


Water        .     .     . 
Organic  substance 
Ash       .... 
Nitrogen  . 
Potash       .     .     . 
Soda     .... 


Human  feces,  fresh 


772.0     Lime 

198.0  Magnesia    .... 

29.9  Phosphoric  acid    .     . 

10.0  Sulfuric  acid    . 

2.5  Silica  and  sand     . 

1.6  Chlorine  and  riuorine 


6.2 
3.6 
10.9 
0.8 
1.9 
0.4 


Human  urine,  fresh 


Water 

.     .     963.0 

Organic  substance 

.     .       24.0 

Ash 

.     .        13.5 

Nitrogen 

.     .         6.0 

Potash       

.     .         2.0 

Soda 

.     .         4.6 

Lime 

^L^gnosia    .... 
Phosphoric  acid    .     . 
Sulfuric  acid    . 
Chlorine  and  fluorine 


0.2 
0.2 
1.7 
0.4 
5.0 


Sewage  (Samuel  Rideal) 

1000  tons  of  London  crude  sewage 

Lb. 

Ammonia 219 

Phosphoric  acid  (soluble) 28 

Phosphoric  acid  (in.soluble) 24 

Potash 51 

Analyses  of  Fruit  and  Garden  Products,  with  Reference  to  their  Ferti- 
lizing Constituents     (Wolff  and  Goessmaiin) 

One  thousand  parts  of  the  plants  contain  in  pounds:  — 


Name 


Corn,  kernels     .     .     . 

stalk  and  leaves  . 
Potato,  tubers  .     .     . 

vines  .  .  .  . 
Peas,  seed     .     .     .     . 

vines  .  .  .  . 
Beans,  seed  .     ,     .     . 

vines  .  .  .  . 
Carrots,  roots    .     .     . 

leaves  .  .  .  . 
Sugar  beet,  roots   .     . 

leaves  .  .  .  . 
White  turnip,  roots    . 

leaves  .  .  .  . 
Swedish  turnip,  roots 

leaves  .  .  .  . 
White  cabbage,  head 

roots   .  .  .  . 


Water 


144 
150 
750 
770 
143 
160 
150 
160 
850 
822 
815 
897 
920 
898 
870 
884 
900 
890 


Nitro- 
gen 


16.0 

4.8 

3.4 

4.9 

35.8 

10.4 

39.0 

2.2 
5.1 
1.6 
3.0 
1.8 
3.0 
2.1 
3.4 
3.0 
2.4 


Ash 


12.4 
45.3 

9.5 
19.7 
23.4 
43.1 
27.4 
40.2 

8.2 
23.9 

7.1 
15.3 

6.4 
11.9 

7.5 
19.5 

9.6 
15.6 


Potash 


3.7 

16.4 

5.8 

4.3 

10.1 

9.9 

12.0 

12.8 

3.0 

2.9 

3.8 

4.0 

2.9 

2.8 

3.5 

2.8 

4.3 

5.8 


Lime 


0.3 
4.9 
0.3 
6.4 
1.1 

15.9 
1.5 

11.1 
0.9 
7.9 
0.4 
3.1 
0.7 
3.9 
0.9 
6.5 
1.2 
2.8 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


5.7 
3.8 
1.6 
1.6 
8.4 
3.5 
9.7 
3.9 
1.1 
1.0 
0.9 
0.7 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
2.0 
1.1 
1.4 


FERTILITY  CONTENT   OF    VEGETABLES  91 

Analyses  of  Fnxit  and  Garden  Products  —  Continued 


Name 


Savoy  cabbage,  head 
Cauliflower  .     .     . 
Horseradish,  roots 
Spanish  radish,  roots 
Parsnip,  roots    .     . 
Artichoke,  roots     . 
Asparagus,  sprouts 
Common  onion,  bulb 
Celery      .... 
Spinach    .... 
Common  lettuce    . 
Head  lettuce      .     . 
Roman  lettuce  .     . 
Cucumber     . 
Pumpkin       .     .     . 
Rhubarb,  roots 

stem  and  leaves 
Apples      .... 

Pears 

Cherries   .... 
Plums       .     .     .     .     , 
Gooseberries      .     .     . 
Strawberries      .     .     . 
Grapes 

seeds      .     .     .     . 


Water 

Nitro- 
gen 

Ash 

Potash 

Lime 

871 

5.3 

14.0 

3.9 

3.0 

904 

4.0 

8.0 

3.6 

0.5 

767 

4.3 

19.7 

7.7 

2.0 

933 

1.9 

4.9 

1.6 

0.7 

793 

5.4 

10.0 

5.4 

1.1 

811 

10.1 

2.4 

1.0 

933 

3.2 

5.0 

1.2 

0.6 

860 

2.7 

7.4 

2.5 

1.6 

841 

2.4 

17.6 

7.6 

2.3 

923 

4.9 

16.0 

2.5 

1.9 

940 
943 

8.1 
10.1 

3.7 
3.9 

0.5 
1.5 

2.2 

925 

2.0 

9.8 

2.5 

1.2 

956 

1.6 

5.8 

2.4 

0.4 

900 

1.1 

4.4 

0.9 

0.3 

743.5 

5.5 

28.8 

5.3 

5.0 

916.7 

1.3 

17.2 

3.6 

3.4 

831 

0.6 

2.2 

0.8 

0.1 

831 

0.6 

3.3 

1.8 

0.3 

825 

3.9 

2.0 

0.3 

838 

2.9 

1.7 

0.3 

903 

3.3 

1.3 

0.4 

902 

3.3 

0.7 

0.5 

830 

1.7 

8.8 

5.0 

1.0 

110 

19.0 

22.7 

6.9 

5.6 

PHORIC 

Acid 


2.1 
1.6 
2.0 
0.5 
1.9 
1.1 
0.9 
1.3 
2.2 
1.6 
0.7 
1.0 
1.1 
1.2 
1.6 
0.6 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
1.4 
7.0 


For  analyses  of  fertilizer  ingredients  in  forage  crops  and  feeding- 
stuffs,  see  Chap.  XXII.  Consult,  also.  Cover-crops  and  Catch-crops, 
Chap.  VIII. 


CHAPTER  V 


Seed-Tables 


The  farm  practice  of  the  particular  person  greatly  modifies  the  quan- 
tity of  seed  to  be  used  to  the  acre,  as  also  the  purpose  for  which  the 
given  crop  is  to  be  grown ;  but  the  average  quantities  are  to  be  found 
about  midway  between  the  extremes  given  in  these  tables. 


Quantity  of  Seed  Required  per  Acre 


Alfalfa  (broadcast) 
Alfalfa  (drilled)      .     . 
Artichoke,  Jerusalem  . 
Asparagus     .... 


Barley       .... 

Barley  and  peas 

Bean,  dwarf  (in  drills) 

Bean,  pole  (in  drills) 

Bean,  field  (small  va 
rieties)        .     .     . 

Bean,  field  (large  va- 
rieties)       .     .     . 

Beet 

Beggarweed  (for  forage) 

Beggarweed  (for  hay) 

Bent-grass     .     .     . 

Berseem   .... 

Blue-grass 

Brome-grass  (alone 
for  hay) 

Bronie-grass  (alone 
for  pasture)    .     . 

Brome-grass  (in  mix- 
ture)     .... 

Broom-corn  ... 

Broom-corn  (for  seed) 

Buckwheat   . 

Bur-clover     . 

Cabbage  .... 

Carrots  (for  stock) 

Cassava    .... 

Cauliflower  . 


Celery 


20-25  lb. 

15-20  lb. 

6-8  bu. 

4  or  5  lb.,  or 

1  oz.  for  50  ft. 

of  drill 

8-10  pk. 

1-2  bu.  each 

IH  bu. 

10-12  qt. 

2-3  pk. 

5-6  pk. 
4-6  lb. 
5-6  lb. 
8-10  lb. 
1-2  bu. 
1^-1  bu. 
25  lb.  (pure) 

12-15  lb. 

15-20  lb. 

2-5  lb. 

3  pk. 

Ipk. 

3-5  pk. 

12  1b. 

3^-1  lb. 

4-6  lb. 

By  cuttings 

1  oz.  for  1000 

plants 

1  oz.  for  2000 

plants 


Chick-pea     ....         30-50  lb. 
Chicory  (and  by  cut- 
tings)   .....  1-11^  lb. 
Clover,  alsike  (alone, 

for  forage)      .     .     .  8-15  lb. 

Clover,      alsike      (on 

wheat     or     rye     in 

spring)       ....  4-6  lb. 

Clover,    Egyptian    or 

berseem     ....  3^-1  bu. 

Clover,   Japan   (lespe- 

deza) 12  lb. 

Clover,  mammoth       .         12-15  lb. 
Clover,  red  (alone,  for 

forage)       ....  16  lb. 

Clover,  red  (on  small 

grain  in  spring)   .     .  8-14  lb. 

Clover,  sweet  (melilo- 

tus) 2  pk. 

Clover,  white     .     .     .  10-12  lb. 

Clover,     yellow     (for 

seed) 3-5  lb. 

Clover,      yellow      (in 

mixture)    ....  1  lb. 

Corn 0  qt.-l  bu. 

Corn  (for  silage)     .     .  9-11  qt. 

Cotton 1-3  bu. 

Cowpea 1-132  bu. 

Cowpea  (in  drill,  with 

corn) 3^-1  bu. 

Cowpea  (for  seed)       .  3  pk. 

Cress,  upland  (in  drills)         2-3  lb. 
Cress,  water  (  in  drills)  2-3  lb. 

Crimson  clover       .      .  12-15  lb. 

Cucumber  (in  hills)    .  2  lb. 

Durra.        See       Kafir 

and  Milo 


92 


SEEDS    TO    THE  ACRE 


93 


Eggplant       .... 

1  oz.  for  1000 

plants 

Field-pea    (small    va- 

rieties)      .... 

2K  bu. 

Field-pea  (large  varie- 

ties)        

3-31^  bu. 

Flax  (for  fiber)       »     . 

13^-2  bu. 

Flax  (for  seed) 

2-3  pk. 

Grass,  for  lawns     . 

3-5  bu. 

Guinea-grass 

Root  cuttings 

Hemp  (broadcast) 

33^-4  pk. 

Hungarian-grass  (hay) 

2  pk. 

Hungarian-grass  (seed) 

Ipk. 

Johnson-grass    . 

1-1 H  bu. 

Kafir  (drills)       .     .     . 

3-6  lb. 

Kafir  (for  fodder)    .     . 

10-12  lb. 

Kale 

2-4  lb. 

Kohlrabi 

4-5  lb. 

Lespedeza     .... 

12  1b. 

Lettuce 

1  oz.  for  1000 

plants 

Lupine 

1^-2  bu. 

Mangels 

5-8  lb. 

Meadow  fescue      .     . 

12-15  lb. 

Melon,  musk  (in  hills) 

2-3  lb. 

Melon,  water  (in  hills) 

4-5  lb. 

Millet,  barnyard  (drills) 

1-2  pk. 

Millet,  foxtail  (drills) 

2-3  pk. 

Millet,  German  (seed) 

1  pk. 

Millet,  Aino  (drills)     . 

2-3  pk. 

Millet,  pearl  (for  soiling) 

4  1b. 

Millet,  pearl  (for  hay) 

8-10  lb. 

Millet,  proso  or  pan- 

icle (drills)      .     .     . 

2-3  pk. 

Milo 

5  1b. 

Mustard,  broadcast    . 

y2  bu. 

Oat-grass,  tall   .     .     . 

30  1b. 

Oats 

2-3  bu. 

Oats  and  peas   .     .     . 

oats  2  bu., 
peas  %  bu. 

Onion  (in  drills)     .     . 

5-6  lb. 

Onion  seed  for  sets  (in 

drills) 

30  1b. 

Onion  sets  (in  drills)   . 

6-12  bu. 

Orchard-grass    .     .     . 

12-15  lb. 

(pure) 

Para-grass     .... 

Cuttings 

Parsnips  ..... 

4-8  lb. 

Peas,  garden  (in  drill) 

1-2  bu. 

Popcorn   

3  1b. 

Potato  (Irish)  average 

10-14  bu. 

Potato,  cut  to  1  or  2  eyes 

6-9  bu. 

Potato,  recommended 

by   many   for    best 

fields 

15-20  bu. 

Pumpkin       .... 

4  1b. 

Radish  (in  drills)   .     . 

8-10  lb. 

Rape  (in  drills)  .     .     . 

2-4  lb. 

Rape  (broadcast)  .     . 

4-8  lb. 

Red-top  (recleaned)    .  12-15  lb. 

Rescue-grass      .     .     .  30-40  bu. 

Rice 1-3  bu. 

Rutabaga      ....  3-5  lb. 

Rye  (early)  ....  3-4  pk. 

Rye  (late)     ....  6-8  pk. 

Rye  (forage)      .     .     .  3-4  bu. 

Rye-grass      ....  2-3  bu. 

Sage  (in  drills)  .     .     .  8-10  lb. 

Sainfoin  (shelled  seed)  40  lb. 

Salsify  (in  drills)    .     .  8-10  lb. 

Sand  lucerne  (broad- 
cast)        15  lb. 

Serradella    (alone,    in 

drills) 40-50  lb. 

Sheep's  fescue    .     .     .  2^^-3  bu. 

Sorghum  (forage,  broad- 
cast)        iy2-2  bu. 

Sorghum  (for  seed  or 

syrup) 2-5  lb. 

Sorghum,     saccharine 
(for  silage  or  soiling, 

drills) eib.-Hbu. 

Sorghum  and  peas      .  3-4  pk.  each 

Soybean  (drills)      .     .  2-3  pk. 

Soybean  (broadcast)  .  1-1%  bu. 

Spinach  (in  drills)  .     .  10-12  lb. 

Spurry 6-8  qt. 

Spurry  (for  seed)    .     .  4  qt. 

Squash,  bush  (in  hills)  4-6  lb. 

Squash,    running    (in 

hills) 3-4  lb. 

Sugar-beets  ....  15-20  lb. 

Sugar-cane    ....  4  tons  of  cane 

Sunflower      ....  10-15  lb. 

Sweet  clover       .     .     .  2-4  pk. 

Sweet-potato     .     .     .  1%^  bu. 

Teasel l-iy2  pk. 

Teosinte 1-3  lb. 

Timothy 15-25  lb. 

Timothy  and  clover  jti-o^hvW  lb. 

(  1   tablespoonful 

Tobacco    .     .     .     .     <  to  100  sq.  yd.  to 

(  set  out  6  acres 

Tomato  (to  transplant)  V*  lb. 

Turnip  (broadcast)     .  2-4  lb. 

Turnip  (drills)  ...  1-2  lb. 

Turnip  (hybrid)      .     .  3-5  lb. 

Velvet  bean  ....  1-4  pk. 

Vetch,  hairy  (drilled)  I  ^^Vgraln 

Vetch,  hairy  (broad-  |  iy2  bu.  -|-  1  bu. 

cast)                            )  small  grain 

Vetch,  kidney    .     .     .  18-22  lb. 

Vetch,  spring     .     .     |  't^uVain- 

Wheat 6-9  pk. 


94 


SEED-TABLES 


Hay  and  Pasture  Seeds 


Permanent  meadoirn 

Timothy 

Red  nlover    .     .     .     . 

Alsike 

Timothy 

Red-top 

Red  clover    .     ,     .     . 

Red-top 

Orchard-Rrass   .     .     . 
Meadow  fescue      ,     . 
Red  clover    .     .     .     . 
Tall  oat-grass    . 
Red  clover   .... 

Timothy 

Red  clover    .... 

Alsike 

Kentucky  blue-grass . 

Red-top 

Orchard-grass  ,  .  . 
Red-top  (recleaned)  . 
Red-top  (in  chaff) 
Tall  meadow  oat-grass 
Red  clover  .... 
Alsike  clover 


121b.) 
41b. 

21b. 

161b.  1 

Ifi  lb.  > 

4  lb.  ) 

13  lb. 

IS  lb. 

91b. 

4  lb. . 

281b. 
8  lb. 

81b. 

41b. 

21b.   ■ 

21b. 

21b.. 

101b.  1 

51b. 

121b. 

121b. 

81b. 

4  lb.  J 

20-24  lb. 
per  acre 


Permanent  pastures: 

Timothy 31b. 

(^rchani-gra.ss   .     .      .21b. 

Red-top 2  1b. 

2  lb. 
lib. 
2  1b. 
4  1b. 
2  lb. 
Slb.l 
41b.  I 
9  1b.  \ 
31b.  I 


K(>ntucky  blue-grass 
Italian  rye-grass    . 
Meadow  fescue 
Red  clover    ... 
White  clover     .      . 
Kentucky  blue-gra.ss . 
White  clover     .     .     , 
Perennial  rye-grass 
Red  fescue  .... 

Red-top 81b.  J 

Red-top 14  lb.  ] 

Alsike 8  lb.  !  Wet  pas- 
Creeping  bent  .     .     .    6  lb.  I"  ture 
Perennial  rye-grass     .  12  lb.  J 
Red  fescue   ....  20  lb.  ]  j  •  ,  . 

Red-top 101b.     t'^lil 

Kentucky  blue-grass  .    8  lb.  (  ^^^r^ 
White  clover     .     .     .    2  lb.  j  ^°" 

Timothy,  red-top,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  and  red  clover,  equal  parts,  8  to 
20  lb.  pounds  per  acre  of  the  mixture. 

For  quantity  of  seed  for  cover-crops,  see  Chap.  VIII. 

Number  and  weight  of  grass  seeds,  and  another  estimate  of  quantity  to 
sow  (Fraser). 

The  following  table  has  been  adapted  from  "The  Best  Forage 
Plants,"  by  Stebler  and  Schroeter,  and  from  it  calculations  may  be  made. 
The  actual  number  of  grains  in  a  pound  will  frequently  vary  20  per  cent 
either  way  ;  for  example,  in  recleaned  fancy  seed  there  are  fewer  grains 
to  the  pound,  while  in  an  uncleaned  sample  free  from  chaff,  but  con- 
taining many  small  seeds,  the  number  will  l)e  greater.  The  recleaned 
seed  weighs  heavier  ])er  bushel.  The  uncleaned  seed  may  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  chafT,  and  in  such  case  the  luimber  of  seeds  per 
pound  of  material  may  be  very  low.  The  numbers  given  are  per  pound 
of  pure  seed.  The  percentage  of  germination  of  average  snmj)les  of 
seed  is  frequently  but  half,  and  even  less  than  half,  of  that  given  in  the 
table.  The  germination  of  the  rye  grasses  given  in  the  table  is  a  little 
higher  than  ordinarily  found  in  the  United  States,  even  witli  imported 
seed.  Low  germinating  power  may  be  due  to  lack  of  uniformity  in 
ripening  the  seed ;  to  part  of  the  seed  on  a  plant  being  mature  before 


GRASS-SEED    TABLES 


95 


the  remainder,  frequently  seen  in  meadow  foxtail 
of  harvesting,  as  in  Kentucky  blue-grass :  — 


or  to  poor  methods 


2  fe 

hi 

u 

,, 

h 

fc.  o  o 

<  a 

i 

O   N 

8^1 

Name 

T       TO 

CRE,  IF  i 

.    Stan 

TY 

§26 

«  HO! 

^» 

E^  >n 

H  «  « 

Amoun 

PER  A 
ALONE 
QUALI 

1° 

1^ 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Awnless  brome  grass 

137,000 

30-50 

75-90 

13-14 

72.99 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

2,400,000 

15-20 

80-90 

14-32 

4.17 

Orchard-grass   .... 

579,000 

20-35 

80-95 

12-23 

17.25 

Perennial  rye-grass 

336,800 

25-40 

95-98 

18-30 

29.7 

Italian  rye-grass    . 

285,300 

30-45 

95-98 

12-24 

35.1 

Meadow  fescue 

318,200 

30-35 

75-95 

12-30 

31.42 

Sheep's  fescue  . 

680,000 

25-30 

60-75 

10-25 

14.85 

Tall  oat-grass    . 

159,000 

20-30 

80-90 

10-16 

62.89 

Meadow  foxtail 

907,000 

20-25 

60-90 

6-14 

11.02 

Red-top    .     .     . 

6,030,000 

8-16 

90-95 

12-40 

1.65 

Timothy   .     .     . 

1,170,500 

10-16 

95-98 

45-48 

8.54 

Alsike  clover     . 

707,000 

10-13 

95-98 

60-64 

14.14 

Red  clover    .     . 

, 

279,000 

10-16 

95-98 

60-64 

35.8 

White  clover      . 

, 

740,000 

10-12 

95-98 

60-64 

13.51 

Alfalfa.     .     .     . 

•     • 

209,500 

15-30 

95-98 

60-64 

48.56 

Examples  of  seed  mixtures  that  would  furnish  20,000,000 
acre,  and  the  weight  of  same  (Fraser) 

No.  of 
Seeds 
For  hay  and  fall  pasture.     Heavy  land.     Brief  duration. 

Timothy 13,400,000 

Alsike 3,300,000 

White  clover 3,300,000 


For  hay  and  pasture. 
Timothy      .... 
Kentucky  blue-grass 
Orchard-grass .     .     . 

Alsike 

White  clover    .    .    . 


seeds  -per 


Weight  of  Pure, 

Viable  Seed. 

Lb. 

11.44 
4.66 
4.46 


For  hay  and  pasture. 
Timothy      .... 
Kentucky  blue-grass 
Orchard-grass       .     . 
Meadow  foxtail   .     . 

Alsike 

White  clover   .     .     . 


20,000,000 

10,000,000 
2,000,000 
1,400,000 
3,300,000 
3,300,000 

20.56 

8.54 
0.82 
2.42 
4.66 
4.46 

20,000,000 

8,000,000 
2,400,000 
2,000,000 
1,000,000 
3,300,000 
3,300,000 

20.90 

6.84 
1.00 
3.46 
1.10 
4.66 
4.46 

20,000,000 


21.52 


96 


SEED^TABLES 


Examples  of  seed  mixtures  —  Continued 


Heavy  loam. 


For  hay. 
Red  clover 
Alsike 
Timothy 

Red-top ^A^^^^OOO^ 

20,0007000 


No.d 
Seeds 

2,790,000 
2,121,000 
7,089,000 


Weight  of  Pure, 

Viable  Seed 

Lb. 

10.00 
3.00 
6.06 
1.32 


20.38 


Testing  grass  seed  (Fraser). 

In  testing  the  seed  for  germination  power  and  purity  it  is  more  satis- 
factory to  weigh  out  a  sample  of  the  seed,  separate  the  chaff  and  inert 
matter,  weigh  it,  and  then  proceed  to  make  a  germination  test  of  the 
remainder.  For  example,  if  a  sample  of  awnless  brome  grass  contain 
10  per  cent  of  dirt  and  chaff,  and  75  per  cent  of  the  pure  seeds  are  viable, 
the  actual  germination  power  of  the  sample  is  67.5  per  cent,  or 

75X90 


100 


=  67.5. 


Number  of  Tree-Seeds  in  a  Potind 

FRUIT   TREES 


Apple     .  . 
Cherry  pita 

Peach    .  . 

Pear       .  . 

Plum      .  . 

Quince  .  . 

Mulberry  . 


About 

12,000 

1,000 

200 

15,000 

600 

15,000 

200,000 


FOREST  TREES 


Butternut Juglans  cinerea 

Black  walnut Juglans  nigra 


American  horse-che-stnut 
Hickory  (shollbark) 
American  sweet  chestnut 
iSilver-leaved  maple 
Honey-locust 
lilark  cherry 
Black  ash        .... 
American  basswood 

Norway  maple Acer  platanoidos 

Sugar  maple         Acer  saccharinum 

Barberry Berberis  vulgaris 

Red  cedar Juniperus  Virginiant 

Rook  elm         Ulmus  racemosa    . 

American  white  ash      ....     Fraxinus  Americana 
Osage  orange Madura  aurantiaca 


^sculus  glabra 
Carya  alba 
Castanca  vesca,  var. 
Acer  dascycarpum     . 
Gleditschia  triacanthos 
Prunus  serotina 
Fraxinus  sambucifolia 
Tilia  Americana    . 


By  count 

15 

25 

36 

78 

90 

.?,421 

2,496 

4,311 

5,629 

6,337 

7,231 

7,488 

8,183 

8,321 

8,352 

9,858 

10.656 


FOREST  AND   FARM  SEEDS 


97 


FOREST  TREES  —  Continued 

By  count 

.     .     Abies  pectinata 12,000 

Negundo  aceroides 14,784 

"      '                                           ...  19,776 

.     .     .  20,161 

.     .     .  20,540 

.     .     .  22,464 

.     .     .  22,656 

.     .     .  28,992 

.     .     .  54,359 

.     .     .  92,352 


Silver  fir 

Box  elder        

Hardy  catalpa Catalpa  speciosa 

Ailanthus Ailanthus  glandulosus 

White  pine Pinus  Strobus        .     . 

Scarlet  maple Acer  rubrum     .     .     . 

Green  ash Fraxinus  viridis     .     . 

Black  locust Robinia  Pseudacacia 

Red  elm Ulmus  fulva      ... 

American  white  elm     ....  Ulmus  Americana 

American  mountain  ash         .     .  Pyrus  Americana 108,327 

White  birch Betula  alba 500,000 

Figures  vary  greatly  in   different  counts,    the   variation  probably 

amounting  to  as  much  as  20  per  cent.      It  is   usually  estimated  that 
white  pine  seeds  run  about  30,000  to  the  pound,  and  red  cedar  20,000. 


Weights  and  Sizes  of  Seeds 
Seedsmen' s  customary  weights  per  bushel  of  seeds  (Edgar  Brown) 


Kind  of  Shed 

Pounds 
per  bushel 

Kind  of  Seed 

Pounds 
per  bushel 

Alfalfa 

Amber  cane 

Bent-grass : 

Creeping 

Rhode  Island  .... 
Bermuda-grass  .  .  .  .  . 
Bird'sfoot  clover     .... 

Bitter  vetch 

Blue-grass : 

Canada       

Kentucky 

Texas 

Broad  bean 

Brome,  awnless 

Broom  corn 

Bur  clover : 

Hulled 

Unhulled 

Spotted 

Castor  bean 

Clover : 

Alsike 

Crimson 

Egyptian 

Mammoth 

Red 

White 

60 
45-60 

10-20 

10-15 

24-36 

60 

60 
14-20 
14-30 

14 
50-60 
10-14 
45-60 

60 

8-10 

60 

46-60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

Cowpea 

Crested  dog's-tail  .  .  . 
Fescue : 

Hard 

Meadow 

Red 

Sheep's 

Tall 

Various  leaved  .... 

Flat  pea      

Flax 

Hemp 

Japan  clover : 

Hulled 

Unhulled 

Johnson-grass      .... 

Kafir 

Lentil 

Lupine,  white  .... 
Meadow  foxtail  .... 
Meadow-grass 

Fowl        

Rough-stalked      .     .     . 

Wood 

Millet : 

Barnyard 

Broom  corn      .... 

56-60 
14-30 

12-16 
14-24 
12-15 
12-16 
14-24 
14-18 
50-60 
48-56 
40-60 

60 
18-25 
14-28 
50-60 

60 
50-60 

7-14 

11-14 
14-20 
14-24 

30-60 
45-60 

98 


SEED-TABLES 


Weights  and  Sizes  of  Seeds  —  Continued 


Kind  op  Seed 

Pounda 
per  bushel 

Kind  of  Seed 

Pound3 
per  bushel 

Millet — contiiiUeH 
Common     .... 
German 

Golden  Wonder 

48-50 
48-50 
48-50 
48-50 
48-56 
50-60 

10-14 

7-14 

45-60 

10-18 

60 

60 

56 
20-30 
50-60 

10-14 
25-40 
12-28 
43^5 

Rye-grass : 

English 

Italian 

Sainfoin 

10-30 
14-25 
14-3? 

Hungarian  .           .... 

Pearl 

Milo 

Oat-grass : 

Tall 

Yellow 

Orange  cane 

Orchard-grass 

Pea: 

Field 

Garden,  smooth   .... 

Garden,  wrinkled      .     .     . 

Peanut  

Rape,  winter 

Red-top : 

Chaff 

Fancy     

Rescue-grass 

Rice 

Serradeila 

Soybean     

SpBlt 

Sunflower 

28-3  c 
58-60 
40-60 
24-50 

Sweet  clover : 

Hulled 

Unhulled 

Sweet  corn  (according  to 

variety) 

Sweet  vernal,  perennial    . 

Teosinte 

Timothy 

Velvet  bean 

Vetch : 

Hairy 

Spring 

Water-grass,  large   . 

Wild  rice 

Yellow  trefoil       .... 

60 
33 

36-56 
6-15 

40-60 
45 
60 

50-60 

60 

14 
15-28 

60 

For   legal  weights  of  seeds,  grains,  fruits,  and  other  products,  see 
Chap.  XXVII. 

Weight  and  size  of  garden  seeds  (adapted  from  Vilmorin's  tables) 


Weight  of  a  qt. 
of  seeds  in  oz. 


Number  of  seeds  in  1  grain 


Angelica 

Anise 

Asparagus  bean  (Dolichos  sesquipedalis) 

Balm 

Basil 

Bean 

Beet 

Borage        

Borecole 

Broccoli 

Cabbage     

Caper 

Caraway ... 

Cardoon 

Carrot  with  the  spines      .... 
Carrot  without  the  spines     .... 


5.827 
11.65 
29.91 
21.36 
20.59 
24.27  to  33.02 

9.71 
18.65 
27.19 
27.19 
27.19 
17.87 
16.31 
24.47 

9.32 
13.98 


11.02 

12.96 

32.40  to  42.12  in  100  gr. 

129.60 

51.84 

4.86  to  51.84  in  100  gr. 

3.24 

4.21 

19.44 

24.30 

19.44 

10.37 

22.68 

1.62 

45.36 

61.56 


GARDEN  SEEDS 


99 


Weight  and  size  of  garden  seeds  —  Continued 


Catmint 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chervil       

Chervil  sweet-scented 

Chervil  turnip-rooted 

Chicory 

Chick-pea        

Coriander        

Corn  salad 

Cress,  American 

Dress,  common  garden 

Cress,  meadow  (cuckoo-flower) 

Cress,  Para 

Cress,  water 

Cucumber,  common    ....;. 

Cucumber,  globe 

Cucumber,  prickly-fruited  gherkin  . 
Cucumber,  snake  (Cucumis  flexuosus) 

Dandelion 

iJill 

Egg-plant 

Endive 

Fennel,  common  or  wild 

Fennel,  sweet 

Gumbo,  see  Okra. 

Good  King  Henry        

Gourds,  fancy 

Hop 

Horehound 

Hyssop 

Kohlrabi 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Lovage      

Maize,  or  Indian  corn 

Marjoram,  sweet 

Marjoram,  winter        

Martynia 

Muskmelon 

Mustard,  black  or  brown  .  .  .  . 
Mustard,  Chinese  cabbage-leaved  . 
Mustard,  white,  or  salad       .     ,     .     . 

Nasturtium,  tall 

Nasturtium,  dwarf 

Okra 

Onion 

Orach   

Parsnip 

Parsley 

Pea 

Pea,  gray  or  field 


Weight  of  a  qt. 
of  seeds  in  oz. 


26.42 
27.19 
18.65 
14.76 

9.71 
20.98 
15.54 
30.30 
12.43 
10.88 
20.98 
28.36 
22.53 

7.78 
22.53 
19.42 
19.42 
21.36 
17.48 
10.49 
11.65 
19.42 
13.20 
17.48 

9.13 

24.28 
17.48 

9.71 
26.42 
22.34 
27.19 
21.37 
16.70 

7.78 
24.86 
21.37 
26.22 
11.26 
13.98 
26.22 
25.64 
29.13 
13.20 
23.30 
24.08 
19.42 

5.44 

7.78 

19.42 

27.19  to  31.08 

26.41  to  31.08 


Number  of  seeds  in  1  grain 


77.76 

24.30 

162.00 

29.16 

2.59 

29.16 

45.36 

1.94  in  10  gr. 

5.83 
64.80 
61.56 
29.16 
97.20 
220.32 
259.20 

2.27 

6.48 

8.42 

2.59 
77.76  to  97.20 
58.32 
16.20 
38.88 
20.09 

8.10 

27.86 

1.29 

12.96 

64.80 

55.08 

19.44 

25.92 

51.84 

19.44 

2.59  to  3.24  in  10  gr. 

259.20 

777.60 

1.29 

2.27 

45.36 

42.12 

12.96 

4.54  to  5.18  in  10  gr. 

9.7  in  10  gr. 

9.7  to  11.66  in  10  gr. 

16.20 

16.20 

14.25 

22.67 

1.29  to  3.56  in  10  gr. 

3.24  to  5.18  in  10  gr. 


100 


SEED-TABLES 


Weight  and  size  of  garden  seeds  —  Continued 


Peanut       

Pepper       

Pumpkin 

Purslane 

Radish 

Rampion 

Rhubarb 

Rocket  Salad 

Rosemary 

Rue 

Sage 

Salsify 

Savory,  summer      .... 

Savory,  winter 

Scorzonera     

Scurvy-grass 

Sea-kale 

Spinach,  prickly-seeded  .  . 
Spinach,  round-seeded  .  . 
Spinach,  New  Zealand 

Strawberry 

Strawberry  blite  (Blitum)  . 
Strawberry  tomato  (Physalis) 

Sweet  Cicely 

Tansy        

Thyme 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Valerian,  African    .... 

Watermelon 

Wax  gourd 

Welsh  onion,  common      .     . 
Welsh  onion,  early  white  . 
Wormwood 


Weight  of  a  qt. 
of  seed  in  oz. 

Number  of  seeds  in  1  grain 

15.54 

1.29  to  1.94  in  10  gr. 

17.48 

9.72 

9.71 

1.94  in  10  gr. 

23.70 

162.00 

27.19 

7.77 

31.08 

1620.00 

3.10  to  4.66 

3.24 

29.13 

35.64 

15.54 

58.32 

22.53 

32.40 

21.37 

16.20 

8.93 

6.48 

19.42 

97.20 

16.70 

162.00 

10.09 

5.83 

23.30 

97.20  to  116.64 

8.16 

9.72  to  11.66  in  10  gr. 

14.57 

5.83 

19.81 

7.13 

8.74 

6.48  to  7.77  in  10  gr. 

23.30 

51.84  to  162.00 

31.08 

324.00 

25.25 

64.80 

9.71 

2.59 

11.65 

453.60 

26.41 

388.80 

11.65 

19.44  to  25.92 

26.03 

29.16 

4.27 

16.20 

17.87 

3.24  to  3.88  in  10  gr. 

11.65 

1.36 

18.65 

19.44 

22.92 

32.40 

25.25 

745.20 

Figures  of  Germination  and  Purity 

Seed  testing. 

The  testing  of  seeds  is  of  two  purposes,  —  to  determine  whether 
the  sample  is  adulterated,  and  to  determine  the  viability  or  germi- 
nating power. 

Adulteration  or  impurity  is  discovered  by  examining  the  sample 
under  a  lens. 

Viability  is  determined  by  sprouting  the  seeds  under  favorable 
conditions.  Mix  the  sample  well,  and  choose  100  seeds  as  they  come, 
eliminating  only  the  foreign  seeds.  Place  them  between  folds  of 
moist  Canton  flannel,  and  keep  moist  (not  soaking  wet)  by  covering 


GERMINATION   TABLES 


101 


with  a  plate.  Keep  at  living-room  temperature.  As  rapidly  as  the 
seeds  sprout,  remove  them.  See  that  the  seeds  do  not  touch  each 
other,  or  mold  may  spread. 

High  average  'percentage  of  purity  and  of  germination  of  high-grade  seed 

(Duvel) 


Seed 

Purity 
Per  Cent 

Germina- 
tion 
Per  Cent 

Seed 

Purity 
Per  Cent 

Germina- 
tion 
Per  Cent 

Alfalfa        .      .      . 

99 

95 

Millet,  hog 

.     .           99 

90 

Asparagus      .     . 

99 

85 

Millet,  pearl 

99 

90 

Barley       .     .     . 

99 

98 

Mustard 

.     .           99 

95 

Beans   .... 

99 

98 

Oats    .     . 

.     .           99 

96 

Beet,  garden 

99 

150  1 

Okra   .     . 

.     .           99 

80 

Beggar  weed  . 

99 

90 

Onion 

.     .           99 

96 

Bermuda-grass  . 

98 

90 

Orchard-gra 

3S  .           95 

90 

Blue-grass,  Can- 

Parsley   . 

.     .           99 

80 

ada   .... 

95 

85 

Parsnip    . 

.     .          98 

85 

Blue-grass,  Ken- 

Peas   .     . 

.     .          99 

98 

tucky     .     .     . 

95 

85 

Pumpkin 

.     .          99 

96 

Brome,  awnless  . 

90 

90 

Radish     . 

.     .           99 

97 

Buckwheat    .     . 

99 

96 

Rape  .     . 

.     .          99 

96 

Cabbage    .     .     . 

99 

95 

Red-top  . 

.     .          96 

90 

Caraway  .     .     . 

98 

90 

Rice    .     . 

.     .          99 

95 

Carrot  .... 

98 

85 

Rye     .     . 

.     .           99 

96 

Cauliflower    .     . 

99 

85 

Rye-grass,  I 

tal- 

Celery  .... 

98 

85 

ian  .     . 

.     .           98 

90 

Clover,  alsike     . 

98 

95 

Rye-grass,  E 

ng- 

Clover,  crimson  . 

98 

97 

Ush 

.     .           98 

90 

Clover,  red    . 

98 

95 

Salsify      . 

.     .           98 

85 

Clover,  sweet 

98 

90 

Sainfoin  . 

.     .           99 

95 

Clover,  white 

96 

90 

Sorghum  . 

.     .           98 

95 

CoUard      .     .     . 

99 

95 

Soybean  . 

.     .          99 

95 

Corn,  field 

99 

99 

Spinach   . 

.     .          99 

90 

Corn,  sweet   .     . 

99 

94 

Spurry     . 

.     .           99 

90 

Cotton       .     .     . 

99 

90 

Squash     . 

.     .           99 

96 

Cowpea     .     .     . 

99 

95 

Sugar-beet 

Cress    .... 

99 

90 

(large  ball 

s)  .           99 

175  1 

Cucumber      .     . 

99 

96 

Sugar-beet 

Eggplant  .     .     . 

99 

90 

(small  bal 

s)  .           99 

1501 

Endive       .     .     . 

99 

85 

Sunflower 

99 

90 

Fescue,  meadow 

98 

90 

Sweet-pea 

99 

90 

Fescue,  sheep's  . 

96 

85 

Teosinte  . 

99 

90 

Flax      .... 

99 

95 

Timothy 

99 

96 

Hemp  .... 

99 

90 

Tomato   . 

99 

94 

Kafir  corn 

99 

97 

Tobacco  . 

99 

90 

Kale     .... 

99 

95 

Turnip     . 

99 

98 

Lettuce     .     .     . 

99 

98 

Velvet  bean 

99 

90 

Melon,  musk 

99 

96 

Velvet        gr 

ass 

Melon,  water      . 

99 

96 

(hulled) 

97 

85 

Millet,  common 

99 

90 

Vetch       . 

99 

93 

Wheat      . 

99 

98 

1  Each  beet  fruit,  or  "ball,"  is  likely  to  contain  two  to  seven  seeds.     The 
numbers  given  in  the  table  represent  the  number  of  sprouts  from  one  hundred  balls. 


102 


SEED-TABLES 


Average  time  required  for  garden  seeds  to  germinate 


D\Y8 

Bean 5-10 

Beet 7-10 

Cabbage 5-10 

Carrot 12-18 

Cauliflower 5-10 

Celery 10-20 

Corn 5  -S 

Cucumber 6-10 

Endive 5-10 


Days 

Lettuce 6-8 

Onion 7-10 

Pea 6-10 

Parsnip 10-20 

Pepper 9-14 

Radish 3-6 

Salsify 7-12 

Tomato 6-12 

Turnip 4-8 


Longevity  of  Seeds 
Vilmorins  tables 


Angelica 

Anise 

Asparagus  bean  {Dolichos  sesquipedalis) 

Balm 

Barley 

Basil 

Bean 

Beet 

Borage 

Borecole 

Broccoli 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage  

Caraway 

Cardoon 

Carrot,  with  the  spines 

Carrot,  without  the  spines 

Catmint 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chervil 

Chervil,  sweet-scented 

Chervil,  turnip-rooted 

Chicory 

Chick-pea 

Clover 

Coriander 

Corn-salad,  common 

Cress,  American 

Cress,  common  garden 

Cress,  meadow  (cuckoo-flower)      .     .     . 

Cress,  Para 

Cress,  water 

Cucumber,  common 

Cucumber,  globe 


Average 

Extreme 

Years 

Years 

1  or  2 

3 

3 

5 

3 

8 

4 

7 

3 

— 

8 

10  + 

3 

8 

6 

10  + 

8 

10  + 

5 

10 

5 

10 

2 

— 

5 

10 

3 

4 

7 

9 

4  or  5 

10  + 

4  or  5 

10  + 

5 

6  + 

5 

10 

8 

10  + 

2  or  3. 

6 

1 

1 

1 

1 

8 

10  + 

3 

8 

3 

— 

6 

8 

5 

10 

3 

5 

5 

9 

4 

(?) 

5 

7  + 

5 

9  + 

10 

10  + 

6 

(?) 

LIFE   OF  SEEDS 
Longevity  of  Seeds  —  Continued 


103 


Cucumber,  prickly-fruited  gherkin     . 
Cucumber,  snake  (Cucumis  flexuosus) 

Dandelion 

Dill 

Egg-plant 

Endive 

Fennel,  common  or  wild        .... 

Fennel,  sweet 

Flax 

Gumbo,  see  Okra. 

Good  King  Henry 

Gourds,  fancy 

Hop 

Horehound 

Hyssop 

Kohlrabi 

Leek 

Lentil 

Lettuce,  common 

Lovage       

Maize,  or  Indian  corn 

Marjoram,  sweet 

Marjoram,  winter 

Martynia 

Millet 

Muskmelon 

Mustard,  black  or  brown       .... 
Mustard,  Chinese  cabbage-leaved 

Mustard,  white  or  salad 

Nasturtium,  tall 

Nasturtium,  dwarf 

Oats 

Okra 

Onion 

Orach 

Orchard-grass 

Parsnip 

Parsley 

Pea,  garden 

Pea,  gray  or  field 

Peanut 

Pepper 

Pumpkin 

Purslane 

Radish 

Rampion 

Rape 

Rhubarb 

Rocket  salad 

Rosemary 

Rue 


Average 

Extreme 

Years 

Years 

6 

7  + 

7  or  8 

10  + 

2 

5 

3 

5 

6 

10 

10 

10  + 

4 

7 

4 

7 

2 

3 

5 

6 

10  + 

2 

4 

3 

6 

3 

5 

5 

10 

3 

9 

4 

9 

5 

9 

3 

4 

2 

4 

3 

7 

5 

7 

1  or  2 

(?) 

2 

— 

5 

10  + 

4 

9 

4 

8 

4 

10  + 

5 

5 

5 

8 

3 

— 

5 

10  + 

2 

7 

6 

7 

2 

— 

2 

4 

3 

9 

3 

8 

3 

8 

1 

1 

4 

7 

4  or  5 

9 

7 

10 

5 

10  + 

5 

10  + 

5 

3 

8 

4 

9 

4 

(?) 

2 

5 

104 


SEED-TABLES 


Longevity  of  Seeds  —  Continued 


Rye 

Sage 

Salsify 

Savory,  summer       .... 

Savory,  winter    

Scorzonera      

Scurvy-grass 

Sea-kale 

Soybean     

Spinach,  prickly-seeded    .     . 
Spinach,  round-seeded 
Spinach,  New  Zealand      .     . 
Squash,  bush-scallop    . 

Strawberry 

Strawberry,  tomato  (Physalis) 

Sweet  Cicely 

Tansv 

Thyme 

Timothy 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Valerian,  African     .... 

Watermelon 

Wax  gourd 

Welsh  onion,  common       .     . 
Welsh  onion,  early  white 

Wheat 

W'ormwood 


Haberlandt's  figures  of  longevity  (Quoted  in  Johnson's  "  How    Crops 

Grow  ") 


Percentage  of  Seeds  that  germinated  in 

1861    FROM    THE 

Years 

1850 

1851 

1854 

1855 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 

Barley    .     .     . 

0 

0 

24 

0 

48 

33 

92 

97 

Maize     . 

0 

not  tried 

76 

56 

not  tried 

77 

100 

96 

Oats  .... 

60 

0 

56 

48 

72 

32 

80 

100 

Rve    .... 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

48 

96 

Wheat    .     .     . 

0 

0 

8 

4 

73 

60 

84 

89 

Vitality  of  seeds  buried  in  soil  (W.  J.  Beal). 

In  the  fall  of  1879,  fifty  fresh  seeds  of  each  of  twenty-one  kinds  of 
plants  (mostly  weeds)  were  mixed  with  moderately  moist  sand  and  placed 
in  uncorked  bottles  that  were  buried  twenty  inches  below  the  surface, 
with  the  mouths  slanting  downward.  Acorns  were  buried  near  the 
bottles.  Six  tests  have  been  made  of  these  seeds.  The  crosses  (-h) 
indicate  germinations :  — 


LIFE   OF  SEEDS 


105 


Names  of  Seeds  tested  as 

5th 

10th 

15th 

20th 

25th 

30th 

KNOWN  IN   1879 

Year 

Yeak 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Amarantus  retroflexus       .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Ambrosia  artemisiaefolia 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Brassica  nigra 

? 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Bromus  secalinus 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Capsella  Bursa-pastoris 

+ 

? 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Erechtites  hieracifolia. 

0 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Euphorbia  maculata     . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Lepidium  Virginicum  . 

4- 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Lychnis  Githago.     .     . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Maruta  Cotula    .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

+ 

0 

Malva  rotundifolia 

+ 

0 

0 

+ 

0 

0 

(Enothera  biennis    .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Plantago  major  .     .     . 

0 

0 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

Polygonum  Hydropiper 

0 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

possibly 

Portulaca  oleracea  .     . 

0 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

Quercus  rubra      .     .     . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Rumex  cripsus     .     .     . 

+ 

? 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Setaria  glauca      .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

+ 

+ 

Stellaria  media    .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Thuja  occidentalis  .     . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Trifolium  repens 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Verbascum  Thapsus 

+ 

? 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

In  all  of  the  six  tests,  eight  species  out  of  twenty-two  failed  to  germi- 
nate; and  of  the  remaining  fourteen  species,  seeds  of  eight,  possibly 
nine,  germinated  often  when  they  had  been  buried  thirty  years.  The 
acorns  (Qiwrciis  rubra)  buried  near  the  bottles  of  seeds  were  all  dead 
at  the  end  of  two  years. 

Average  Yields  of  Garden  Seed-Crops 


When  Crop  is  as  good 
AS  20  Bu.  OF  Wheat 
PER  Acre  would  be 


When  Crop  is  very 
heavy 


Bean 

Pea   ...     . 
Squash,  summer 
Squash,  winter 
Sweet  corn 

Cucumber .  . 

Muskmelon  . 

Watermelon  . 

Tomato      .  . 

Cabbage     .  . 


lbs.  of  seed  per  acre 
600 
900 
100 
100 
1000  to  2500 
(according  to  variety) 
150 
125 
150 
100 
250 


lbs.  of  seed  per  acre 

1500 

2500 

700 

400 

2500  to  4000 

700 
600 
1000 
400 
800 


The  average  crop  is  probably  10  to  20  per  cent  less  than  the  figures 
given  in  the  first  column. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Planting-Tables 

The  novice  always  wants  exact  advice  as  to  dates,  depths,  and  dis- 
tances. It  is  impossible  to  give  such  advice  that  is  reliable  in  all  times 
and  places ;  it  must  be  given  only  for  suggestion  and  guidance,  not  for 
exact  and  absolute  application.  Accepted  in  this  spirit,  planting-tables 
may  be  very  useful,  even  for  the  experienced  planter. 

Dates  for  Sowing  or  Setting  Kitchen-Garden  Vegetables  in  Different 

Latitudes 

Lansing,  Michigan 

(Average  of  4  and  5  years.) 

Bean,  bush May  16. 

Bean,  pole May  30. 

Beet April  20. 

Broccoli May  10. 

Brussels  sprouts        May  10. 

Cabbage,  early,  under  glass        March  15. 

Cabbage,  late May  20. 

Carrot May  7. 

Cauliflower,  under  glass March  15. 

Celery,  under  glass        March  18. 

Celery,  in  open  ground May  20. 

Corn May  10. 

Cucumber        May  23. 

Egg-plant,  under  glass March  15. 

Kale May  9. 

Kohlrabi May  9. 

Lettuce Maj'  5. 

Melon May  30. 

Okra May  15. 

Onion April    17. 

Parsnips May  7. 

Peas April  15. 

Pepper  under  glass        Maroh  13. 

Potato         May  3. 

Pumpkin May  31. 

Radish April  26. 

Salsify May  7. 

Spinach April  10. 

Squash May  28. 

Tomato,  under  glass March  13. 

Turnip April  15. 

Boston  (Rawson) 

Asparagus About  the  end  of  April. 

Bean,  bush About  the  first  week  in  May. 

106 


DATES    TO  PLANT  GARDEN  SEEDS 


107 


Bean,  pole From  about  the  middle  of  May  to  the  1st  of  June. 

Bean,  lima        About  the  1st  of  June. 

Beet About  the  middle  of  April. 

Borecole,  or  Kale       .     .     .  About  the  middle  of  April ;   plant  out  in  June. 

Brussels  sprouts    ....  In  March  or  April  in  hotbed. 

Cabbage Transplant  the  last  week  in  April  or  the  1st  in  May. 

Carrots Last  of  May  or  1st  of  June. 

Cauliflower From  the  1st  of  May  until  the  1st  of  July. 

Celery The  1st  week  in  April  to  the  2d  in  July. 

Corn,  sweet About  the  1st  of  May. 

Cucumber For  1st  crop,  about  the  middle  of  March. 

Egg-plant About  March  15  in  hotbed. 

Endive June  or  July. 

Kohlrabi May  or  June. 

Okra About  the  10th  of  May. 

Peas During  the  last  of  April  up  to  the  1st  of  May. 

Pepper Put  out  of  doors  about  the  1st  of  April. 

Radish From  the  1st  of  April  to  the  middle  of  June. 

Spinach About  the  1st  of  September. 

Tomato About  the  25th  of  May  set  plants  outdoors. 

Turnips,  for  fall  use        .     .  Any  time  from  July  1  to  August  20. 

Watermelon About  the  middle  of  May. 


New  York  (Henderson) 

Plants  to  sow  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  end  of  April, 
shade  averaging  45  degrees. 


Beet 

Carrot 

Cress 

Celery 

Cabbage 


Cauliflower 

Endive 

Kale 

Lettuce 

Onions 

Parsnip 


From  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June. 

averaging  60°. 


Thermometer  in 

Parsley 

Peas 

Radish 

Spinach 

Turnip 


Thermometer  in  the  shade 


Baan,  bush 
Baan,  cranberry 
Bean,  lima 
Bean,  pole 
Bean,  scarlet 


Bean,  runner 
Corn,  sweet 
Cucumber 
Melon,  musk 
Melon,  water 


Nasturtium 

Okra 

Pumpkin 

Squash 

Tomato 


Norfolk,  Virginia 
Months  in  which  different  crops  are  planted  or  sown,  or  set  out  in  the  open  air. 


Kale  and  Spinach 
Cabbage    .     .     . 


Onions 
Leeks    . 
Lettuce 
Radish 
Peas 


Beans    . 

Egg-plant 

Tomatoes 


sown  during  August,  September,  and  October. 

The  seeds  are  sown  in  August  and  September,  and  the  plants 
are  transplanted  in  the  open  air  in  November  and  De- 
cember. 

Sown  in  August,  September,  January,  and  February. 

The  same  as  onions. 

Sown  in  September  and  January. 

Sown  in  every  month  in  the  year. 

December,  January,  February,  March,  April,  August,  and 
September. 

March  and  April. 

April  and  May. 

April  and  May. 


108 


PLANTING-TABLES 


Squash       .  . 

Cauliflower  . 

Potatoes    .  . 
Sweet-potatoes 

Beets    .     .  . 

Corn     .     .  . 

Oats      .     .  . 

Millet  .  .  . 
Grass-seed 
Carrots  .  . 
Celery  .  .  . 
Cucumbers  . 
Watermelons 
Canteloupes  . 
Peanuts     .     . 


December,   February,  and 


February,  and  March. 


April. 

March  and  April. 

February,  March,  and  July. 

May. 

February  and  March. 

April,  May,  June,  and   July. 

September,  October,   November, 

March. 
June  and  July  ;   after  potatoes. 
September,  October,  November, 
February  and  March. 
April  and  May. 
April. 
April. 
April. 
May. 

Georgia  (Oemler) 

From  December  1  to  the  middle  of  March. 

From  the  1st  to  the  middle  of  March. 

Through  November  and  December. 

From  the   1st  of  October  to  the   15th.    Transplant  about 

November  1  and  later. 
From  Mav  to  September. 
About  March  1  to  the  15th. 
To  prick  out,  about  the  middle  of  January,  otherwise  ten  or 

fifteen  daj's  later. 
About  the  middle  of  September. 
About  January  1. 
About  December  1. 
The  1st  of  February. 

From  Christmas  to  the  last  of  February. 
From  September  10  until  October  15. 
About  the  last  of  February  up  to  the  middle  of  March. 
In  cold  frames,  about  the  1st  of  January. 
About  January  1. 
About  the  15th  of  March. 

Tender  and  hardy  vegetables 

Vegetables  injured  by  a  slight  frost,  and  which  should  therefore  be  planted  only 
after  the  weather  has  settled. 


Asparagus 
Bean,  bush 
Beet  .  . 
Cabbage    . 

Cauliflower 

Cucumber 

Egg-plant 

Lettuce 
Onion  . 
Pea 

Potato 

Radish 

Spinach 

Squash 

Sweet-potato 

Tomato 

Watermelon 


All  Kidney,  Lima,  and  Common  Beans     Egg-plant 

Pumpkin 

Corn                                                                  All  melons 

Squash 

Cucumber                                                         Okra 

Sweet  Potato 

Pepper 

Tomato 

Vegetables  which,  when  properly  handled,  will  end 

ure  a  frost. 

Asparagus                                                         Corn-salad 

Parsley 

Bean,  Windsor,  Broad  or  Horae                  Cress 

Parsnip 

Hcct                                                                      Endive 

Pea 

Borecole                                                              Horseradish 

Radish 

liroc-coli                                                             Kohlrabi 

Rhubarb 

Brussels  sprouts                                                Kale 

Salsify 

Cabbage                                                              Leek 

Sea-kale 

Carrot                                                                  Lettuce 

Spinach 

Cauliflower                                                       All  Onions 

Turnip 

Celery 

WHEN   TO  PLANT  GARDEN  SEEDS 


109 


Date-tables 

Vegetable-gardeners  planting-table  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

See  also  separate  table  of  distances  on  p.  119. 


Seeds  or 

Plants 

required  for 

100  Feet  of 

Row 

Distance 

FOR  Plants 

TO  Stand 

Rows  apart 

Plants  apart 
in  rows 

Depth  of 
Planting 

Horse  culti- 

Hand culti- 

vation 

vation 

Artichoke,  globe      .     . 

3^  ounce 

3  to  4  ft. 

2  to  3  ft. 

2  to  3  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem  . 

2  qt.  tubers 

3  to  4  ft. 

1  to  2  ft. 

1  to  2  ft. 

2  to  3  in. 

Asparagus,  seed       .     . 

1  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

1  to  2  ft. 

3  to  5  in. 

1  to  2  in. 

Asparagus,  plants 

60  to  80  plants 

3  to  5  ft. 

12  to  24  in. 

15  to  20  in. 

3  to  5  in. 

Beans,  bush   .     . 

1  pint 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

5  or  8  to  ft. 

H  to  2  in. 

Beans,  pole     . 

3^  pint 

3  to  4  ft. 

3  to  4  ft. 

3  to  4  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Beets     .     .     . 

2  ounces 

24  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

5  or  6  to  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Brussels  sprouts 

}4  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

24  to  30  in. 

16  to  24  in. 

M  in. 

Cabbage,  early 

}4  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

24  to  30  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

M  in. 

Cabbage,  late 

H  ounce 

30  to  40  in. 

24  to  36  in. 

16  to  24  in. 

}/2  in. 

Cardoon     .     . 

}/2  ounce 

3  ft. 

2  ft. 

12  to  18  in. 

1  to  2  in. 

Carrot  .     .     . 

1  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

6  or  7  to  ft. 

M  in. 

Cauliflower     . 

}4  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

24  to  30  in. 

14  to  18  in. 

M  in. 

Celeriac      .     . 

Ji  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

4  or  5  to  ft. 

Vs  in. 

Celery  .     .     . 

%  ounce 

3  to  6  ft. 

18  to  36  in. 

4  to  8  in. 

Vs  in. 

Chervil       .     . 

1  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

3  or  4  to  ft. 

1  in. 

Chicory      .     . 

H  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

4  or  5  to  ft. 

M  in. 

Citron  .     .     . 

1  ounce 

8  to  10  ft. 

8  to  10  ft. 

8  to  10  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

CoUards     .     . 

J^  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

24  to  30  in. 

14  to  18  in. 

}/2  in. 

Corn  salad 

2  ounces 

30  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

5  or  6  to  ft. 

H  to  1  in. 

Corn,  sweet    . 

H  pint 

36  to  42  in. 

30  to  36  in. 

30  to  36  in. 

1  to  2  in. 

Cress,  upland 

}4  ounce 

30  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

4  or  5  to  ft. 

J^  to  1  in. 

Cress,  water  . 

}4  ounce 

Broadcast 

On  surface 

Cucumber 

J^  ounce 

4  to  6  ft. 

4  to  6  ft. 

4  to  6  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Dandelion 

14  ounce 

30  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

8  to  12  in. 

J^in. 

Eggplant   .     . 

Vs  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

24  to  30  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

H  to  1  m. 

Endive       .     . 

1  ounce 

30  in. 

18  in. 

8  to  12  in. 

>2  to  1  in. 

Horseradish    . 

70  roots 

30  to  40  in. 

24  to  30  in. 

14  to  20  in. 

3  to  4  in. 

Kale,  or  borecole 

}4  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

J^in. 

Kohlrabi    .     . 

14  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

4  to  8  in. 

H  in. 

Leek      .     .     . 

}i  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

14  to  20  in. 

4  to  8  in. 

lin. 

Lettuce      .     . 

}/2  ounce 

30  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

4  to  6  in. 

H  in. 

Melon,  muskmelon 

14  ounce 

6  to  8  ft. 

6  to  8  ft. 

Hills  6  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Melon,  watermelon 

1  ounce 

8  to  12  ft. 

8  to  12  ft. 

Hills  10  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Mustard 

J^  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

4  or  5  to  ft. 

}4  in. 

New  Zealand  spinach 

1  ounce 

36  in. 

24  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

1  to  2  in. 

Okra,  or  gumbo       .     . 

2  ounces 

4  to  5  ft. 

3  to  4  ft. 

24  to  30  in. 

1  to  2  in. 

Onion,  seed     .     . 

1  ounce 

24  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

4  or  5  to  ft. 

3^  to  1  in. 

Onion,  sets     . 

1  quart  of  sets 

24  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

4  or  5  to  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Parsley       .     . 

}4  ounce 

24  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

3  to  6  in. 

%  in. 

Parsnip      .     . 

14  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

5  or  6  to  ft. 

H  to  1  in. 

Peas       .     .     . 

1  to  2  pints 

3  to  4  ft. 

30  to  36  in. 

15  to  ft. 

2  to  3  in. 

Pepper       .     . 

Vg  ounce 
%  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

15  to  18  in. 

H  in. 

Physalis     .     . 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

,H  in. 

Potato,  Irish 

5  lb.  (or  9  bu. 

per  acre) 
3  lb.  (or  75  slips) 

30  to  36  in. 

24  to  36  in. 

14  to  18  in. 

4  in. 

Potato,  sweet 

3  to  5  ft. 

3  to  5  ft. 

14  in. 

3  in. 

Pumpkin    .     . 

}/2  ounce 

8  to  12  ft. 

8  to  12  ft. 

Hills  8  to 

12  ft. 
8  to  12  to  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Radish        .     . 

1  ounce 

24  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

1^  to  1  in. 

Rhubarb,  seed 

14  ounce 

36  in. 

30  to  36  in. 

6  to  8  in. 

H  to  1  in. 

Rhubarb,  plants 

33  plants 

3  to  5  ft. 

3  to  5  ft. 

3  ft. 

2  to  3  in. 

Rutabaga  .     . 

}4  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

6  to  8  in. 

M  to  1  in. 

Salsify  .     .     . 

1  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

2  to  4  in. 

1^  to  1  in. 

Spinach      .     . 

1  ounce 

30  to  36  in. 

12  to  18  in. 

7  or  8  to  ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Squash,  bush 

14  ounce 

3  to  4  ft. 

3  to  4  ft. 

Hills3to4ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Squash,  late  . 

}4  ounce 

7  to  10  ft. 

7  to  10  ft. 

Hills  7to  9ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

Tomato      .     . 

Vs  ounce 

3  to  5  ft. 

3  to  4  ft. 

3  ft. 

3^  to  1  in. 

Turnip        .     . 

}4  ounce 

24  to  36  in. 

18  to  24  in. 

6  or  7  to  ft. 

}^  to  H  in. 

Vegetable  marrow 

M  ounce 

8  to  12  ft. 

8  to  12  ft. 

Hills8to9ft. 

1  to  2  in. 

110 


PLANTING-TABLES 


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FIELD-CROP  DATES 


115 


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116 


PLANTING-TABLES 


Flower-planting  table  (Suburban  Life) 

It  is  a  wise  plan  to  grow  enough  extra  plants  in  a  reserve  bed  or  in  pots  during  the  sum- 
mer, so  that  any  gaps  in  the  bed  may  be  filled  as  the  occasion  requires.  This  table  includes 
some  perennials  and  biennials,  as  well  as  annuals.  It  is  made  for  about  the  latitude  of 
New  York. 


When  to  sow  Seed 

Thin 

OR 

TR.\N8- 
PLANT 

Height 
(Inches) 

Season  of 
Bloom 

Color  op 

Variety 

Flowers 

Indoors 

Outdoors 

TO 

(Inches) 

Abronia       .... 

March 

May 

12 

'A  to  \y2 

July  to  frost 

Yellow,  pink, 

Achillea  (Sneezewort) 

June- 
Sept.  1 
April 

12 

1  to  VA 

July- 
October 
June- 
August 
June  to  frost 

rose 
White 

Adonis 

March 

1 

Crimson 

Ageratum    .... 

March 

May 

6 

^toM 

Blue,  white 

Agrostemma    (Rose- 

of-Heaven)  .     .     . 

April 

May 

6 

1  to  VA 

July  to  frost 

Rose,  white 

Alonsoa        .... 

April 

May 

6  to  12 

1  to  3 

July  to  frost 

Scarlet,  white 

Amaranthus     .     .     . 

April 

18 

5  to  6 

August 

Red,     purple, 
yellow,    white 

Aquilegia      (Colum- 

July-Sept. 1 

8 

2^ 

June-Sept.  1 

Yellow,  white. 

bine)   

red,  blue 

Argemone    (Mexican 

April  in 

May 

12 

VA  to  2 

July, 

Yellow,  white 

Poppy)     .... 

pots 

August 

Asperula      .... 

April 

May 

6 

1 

Aug.,  Sept. 

Blue 

Aster  (China)        .     . 

March, 
April 

May 

9 

1  to  3 

July- 
October 

Yellow,  white 
red,  blue 

Aster  (Perennial) 

July- 
Sept.  1 

12 

1  to3 

Sept.,  Oct. 

White,    pink, 
blue 

Balloon  Vine    .     .     . 

April 

May 

6 

10 

Aug.,  Sept. 

White 

Balsam 

April 

May 

24 

2to2H 

July  to  frost 

Yellow,  white, 

pink,  red 

Yellow 

Bartonia      .... 

May 

1  to  3 

July-Sept. 

Beets 

April 

6 

1  to  2 

Ornamental 

foliage 

Dark  red 

Black  Dahlia  .     .     . 

March 

May 

12 

1  to  P/a 

July. 

August 

Brachycome     (Swan 

River  Daisy)     .     . 

April 

May 

6 

i^tol 

Blue,  white 

Cacalia  (Emilia)  .     . 

May 

6 

1  to  2 

July  to  frost 

Scarlet,     yel- 
low 
Rose,    purple 

Calandrina       .     .     . 

May 

6 

Ji  tol 

Calendula  (Pot  Mari- 

March 

Late  April 

6 

% 

June-Oct. 

Orange,     yel- 

gold)        .... 

low 

Calliopsis  (Coreopsis) 

March 

April 

10 

13^ 

June  to  frost 

Yellow 

r'aMirhoe         (Poppy 

April 

May 

9 

1  to  3 

July  to  frost 

Purple,    lilac, 
red,  cherry 

Mallow)  .... 

T;-impanula  (Canter- 

July- 

12 

2  to  3 

June- 

Blue,    white, 

bury  Bell)     .     .     . 

Sept.  1 

August 

pink 

Candytuft        .     .     . 

April 

May 

4  to  12 

'A  to  I A 

Juno-Oct. 

White 

Cannabis      (Giant 

10 

Inconspicu- 

Hemp)    .... 

ous 

Cardinal  Flower 

March 

9 

1  to2H 

Aug.,  Sept. 

Scarlet 

Castor  bean  (Ricinus) 

April 

May 

3 

4  to  8 

Grown  for 

foliage 
Blue,  white 

Catananche     .     .     . 

March 

6 

2  to  3 

June- 

August 

Celosia  (Cockscomb) 

March, 
April 

May 

6 

>^to^ 

June 
to  frost 

Red 

FLOWER  PLANTING 


117 


Flower-planting  table  —  Continued 


Vabiety 


Carnation  (Marguer- 
ite)     .     .     . 

Centaurea  (Blue 

Bottle)     .     . 

Centranthua    . 

Chrysanthemum,  An 
nual     . 

Cleome(Spider  Plant) 


Cobcea   . 
CoIIinsia 


Convolvulus    . 
Cosmos,  Early- 


Cosmos,  Late 
Dahlia    .     . 


Dianthus     (China 

Pink)        .     . 
Digitalis    (Foxglove) 

Eschscholzia      (Cal 

fornia  Poppy) 
Evening  Primrose 

Flax 

Four  O'clock   .     . 

Gaillardia    .     .     . 
Gilia       .... 


Globe  amaranth 

(Gomphrena)    . 

Golden-tuft  (Alys 
sum)    .... 

Gourds   .... 


GjT)sophila 
Hawkweed 
Helianthus 

flower) 
Hibiscus 


(Sun 


Hollyhock  .  .  . 
Honesty  (Lunaria) 
Hop 


IpomcBa     (Morning- 

Glory)      .     . 
Kochia   .     .     . 


When  to  sow  Seed 


Indoors       Outdoors 


March 


April 
March, 
April 
April 

March, 
April 
April 


April 

April, 

May 
March, 

April 
March, 

April 


April 
April 

April 


March, 
April 
April 

April, 

May 
March, 

April 
March, 

April 
March, 

April 


March 


April 

May 
May 

May 


May 

April 
May 

May 


May  5 

July- 
Sept.  1 
May 


May 
May 

May 
May 

May 

July- 
Sept.  1 
May 

May 

April,  May 

May 

July- 
Sept.  1 

July- 
Sept.  1 

Maj 

April,  May 
April 
April 


Thin 

OR 

Trans- 
plant 

TO 

(Inches) 


3  to  12 


12 

8  to  12 

6 
12  to  36 

15  to  24 

15 

12 

12 

6 

9  to  12 


Height 
(Inches) 


1  to  VA 

2  to  3 

1  to  2 
1  to  IM 

2 

10  to  20 

1  to  1}4 

J^tol 
4 

6  to  8 

4 

1  to  IJi 

3  to  4 


1  to  VA 

2  to  2A 
IH  to  2 

3/4  to  1 

M  to  2y2 


15 

1  to  2 
H  tol 
3  to  6 

5  to  7 

5  to  7 

13^  to  23^ 

20  to  30 

10  to  15 

2  to2H 


Season  of 
Bloom 


June 
to  frost 

June 

to  frost 

July  to  frost 

June-Oct. 

July, 

August 

Aug.,  Sept. 

July, 

August 

July  to  frost 

July, 

August 

Sept. 

to  frost 

Aug.  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July, 

August 

July-Sept. 

July-Sept. 
July-Sept. 
July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 
July-Sept. 

July  to  frost 

July- 
October 
September 

July-Sept. 
Aug.,  Sept. 
July  to  frost 

August 

August 

June,  July 


June 
to  frost 


Color  of 
Flowers 


White,  pink, 

red 
Blue,  white, 

pink 

Red,  white 

White,  red, 

yellow 

Purple 

Violet,  green- 
ish purple 
White,  lilac, 
violet 
Blue 
White,  pink 

White,  pink, 

red 
White,  red, 

yellow 
White,  pink, 
red 
Pink,  white 

Orange,  yel- 
low, white 

Yellow 
Red,  blue 
White,  yel- 
low, red 
Yellow,  red 
Blue,  red, 
white 
Red,  white, 
blue 
Yellow 

White 

Rosy 

Yellow,  red 

Yellow 

White  to  red 

White  to  red 

Pink,  purple 

Ornamental 

foliage 

Blue,  red, 

white 

Grown  for 

foliage 


118 


PLANTING-TABLES 

Flower-planting  table  —  Continued 


Varibty 


Larkspur  (Annual) 

Lobelia  .... 

Lupinua       .     .     . 

Madia  (Tarweed) 

Marigold 

Martynia      (Unicorn 

plant)  .  .  . 
Matthiola  bicornis 
Mignonette      .     . 

Myosotis  (Forget-me 

not)     .     .     . 
Nasturtium 

Nicotiana  (Tobacco) 

Pansy     ... 

Petunia       .     . 

Phlox  (Annual) 

Poppy  (Annual) 

Poppy,  Iceland 

Pyrethrum 

Portulaca    .     . 
Salpiglossis 


Salvia     ... 

Scabiosa    (Mourning 

Bride)      .     . 
Silene  (Catchfly) 
Snapdragon 

Stocks  (Ten  Weeks) 

Sweet  Alyssum  .  . 
Sweet  Pea  .... 
Sweet  William 

Venus'  Looking-glass 

(Speccularia)     .     . 

Verbena       .... 

Zinnia 


When  to  sow  Seed 


Indoors      Outdoors 


March, 
April 
Fcb.- 
April 


April 
April 


March, 
.\pril 
April 

April 

April 

March 


Feb., 
March 
March, 

April 


April 

Feb., 
March 
April 

March 
March 

March, 
April 


March 


Feb.- 
April 
March, 
April 


May  5 

May 

May 

May 
May 
May 

April 
May  10 

May 

May  1 

May  10 

April,   July, 

August 

May 

May 

April,  Sept., 

October 
April-Sept. 

July-Sept. 

May 
May 

May 

May 

April 

May 

April,  May 
Mar.,  April 
July- 
Sept.  1 

April 
May 

May 


Thin 

OR 
TRANS- 
PLANT 
TO 

(Inches) 


12 


12 


to  12 
12 


Height 
(Inches) 


1  to  V4. 


1  to  2 

H  to  3 

1 

M  to  1 

1 


1  to  10 
3 
Vs 

1 

1  to  2 

1 
2 

1 

2  to  214 

2  to  3 

2 

1  to  Wi 
M  to3 

1  to  IH 

6 
2 


1)4  to  2 


Season  of 
Bloom 


June-Sept. 

June 

to  frost 

July, 

August 

July-Oct. 

July  to  frost 

July 

Aug.  to  frost 
July  to  frost 

June- 
August 

June 

to  frost 

July  to  frost 

April 
to  frost 

June 

to  frost 

July  to  frost 

June- 
August 
June- 
August 
July, 
August 
July  to  frost 
Aug.  to  frost 

Aug.  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July-Sept 
July  to  frost 

July-Sept. 

June-Oct. 
July-Sept. 
June,  July 


Aug.,  Sept. 

June 

to  frost 

June-Oct. 


Color  ok 
Flowers 


Blue,  white, 

red,  pink 

Blue,  white 

Pink,  blue, 
white 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow,  pur- 
ple, white 

White 
Greenish 

yellow 
Blue,  pink, 

white 
Yellow,  red, 

orange 

White,  pink, 

red,  yellow 

Various 

Red,  white, 

pink 
Red,  white, 
pink,  yellow 
Pink,  red,  yel- 
low, white 
Red,  yellow, 

white 
White,  pink, 

red 

Red,  white 

Yellow,  white 

red,  brown 

Scarlet 

White,  pur- 
ple, yellow 
Red,  white. 
Yellow,  white, 

pink,  red 

Pink,  scarlet 

white,   yellow 

White 

.\ll  colors 

Red,  white 

pink 

White,  blue 
White,  pink, 

red,  blue 

Red,     yellow, 

pink,  white 


HOW  FAR  APART   TO  PLANT 


119 


Distance-Tables 

Usual  distances  apart  for  planting  fruits 

Apples 30  to  40  feet  each  way. 

Apples,  dwarf  (Paradise  stocks) 8  to  10  feet  each  way. 

Apples,  dwarf  (Doucin  stocks) 12  to  25  feet  each  way. 

Pears 20  to  30  feet  each  way. 

Pears,  dwarf 10  to  15  feet  each  way. 

Plums 16  to  20  feet  each  way. 

Peaches 16  to  20  feet  each  way. 

Cherries 16  to  25  feet  each  way. 

Apricots 16  to  20  feet  each  way. 

Nectarines 16  to  20  feet  each  way. 

Quinces 8  to  14  feet  each  way. 

Figs 20  to  25  feet  each  way. 

Mulberries 25  to  30  feet  each  way. 

Japanese  Persimmons 20  to  25  feet  each  way. 

Loquats 15  to  25  feet  each  way. 

Pecans 35  to  40  feet  each  way. 

Grapes 8  to  12  feet  each  way. 


Currants 
Gooseberries 


4X5  feet. 
4X5  feet. 


Raspberries,  black 3X6  feet. 

Raspberries,  red 3X5  feet. 

Blackberries 4X7  to  6X8  feet. 

Cranberries 1  or  2  ft.  apart  each  way. 

Strawberries 1  X  3  or  4  feet. 

Oranges  and  Lemons 25  to  30  feet  each  way. 

Distances  recommended  for  orange  trees  in  California 

Dwarfs,  as  Tangerines 10  to  12  feet. 

Half-dwarfs,  as  Washington  Navel 24  to  30  feet. 

Mediterranean  Sweet,  Maltese  Blood,  Valencia       .     .  24  to  30  feet. 

St.  Michael , 18  to  24  feet. 

Seedlings 30  to  40  feet. 

Usual  distances  apart  for  planting  vegetables  (see  also  table,  p.  109) 


Artichoke  . 
Asparagus 
Beans,  bush 
Beans,  pole 
Beet,  early 
Beet,  late   . 
Broccoli 
Cabbage,  early 
Cabbage,  late 
Carrot   . 
Cauliflower 
Celery   .     . 

Corn-salad 

Corn,  Sweet 

Cress 

Cucumber 

Egg-plant  . 

Endive 

Horseradish 


Rows  3  or  4  ft.  apart,  2  to  3  ft.  apart  in  the  row. 
Rows  3  to  4  ft.  apart,  1  to  2  ft.  apart  in  the  row. 

1  ft.  apart  in  rows  2  to  3  ft.  apart. 
3  to  4  ft.  each  way. 

In  drills  12  to  18  in.  apart. 
In  drills  2  to  3  ft.  apart. 
IH  X  214  ft.  to  2  X  3  ft. 
16  X  28  in.  to  18  X  30  in. 

2  X  3  ft.  to  2}4  X  SH  ft. 
In  drills  1  to  2  ft.  apart. 

2  X  2  ft.  to  2  X  3  ft. 

Rows  3  to  4  ft.  apart,  6  to  9  in.  in  the  row;    "new  celery 

culture,"  7  X  7  in.,  each  way. 
In  drills  12  to  18  in.  apart. 


,^  ft.  apart,  9  in. 

In  drills  10  to  12  in.  apart. 
4  to  5  ft.  each  way. 
3  X  3  ft 

1  X  1  ft!  to  1  X  1)^  ft. 

1  X  2  or  3  ft. 


to  2  ft.  in  the  row. 


120 


PLANTING-TABLES 


Kohlrabi 
Leek 
Lettuce 
Melons,  musk 
Melons,  wate 
Mushroom 
Okra      .     . 
Onion    .     . 
Parsley 
Parsnip 
Peas       .     . 

Pepper 
Potato  .     . 
Pumpkin    . 
Radish  .     . 
Rhubarb    . 
Salsify  .     . 
Sea-kale 
Spinach 
Squash,  bush 
Squash,  late 
Sweet  Potato 
Tomato 
Turnip 


10  X  1<S  in.  to  1  X  2  ft. 

6  in.  X  1  or  11^  ft. 

1  X  1 » 2  or  2  ft. 

5  to  0  ft.  each  way. 

7  to  8  ft.  each  way. 
G  to  S  in.  each  way. 
1 1^  X  2  or  3  ft. 

In  drills  from  14  to  20  in.  apart. 

In  drills  1  to  2  ft.  apart. 

In  drills,  18  in.  to  3  ft.  apart. 

In  drills  ;  early  kinds,  usually  in  double  rows,  6  to  9  in.  apart ; 

late  kinds,  in  single  rows,  2  to  3  ft.  apart. 
15  to  18  in.   X  2  to  2^  ft. 
10  to  18  in.  X  21^  to  3  ft. 

8  to  10  ft.  each  way. 

In  drills,  10  to  18  in.  apart. 

2  to  4  ft.  X  4  ft. 

In  drills,  1 V^  to  2  ft.  apart. 

2  X  2  to  3  ft. 

In  drills,  12  to  18  in.  apart. 

3  to  4  ft.  X  4  ft. 

6  to  8  ft.  each  way. 
2  ft.  X  3  to  4  ft. 

4  ft.  X  4  to  5  ft. 

In  drills,  li^  to  2)^  ft.  apart. 


Number  of  plants  required  to  set  an  acre  of  ground  at  given  distances 

This  table  is  computed  by  dividing  43,560  (the  number  of  square  feet  in  an 
acre)  by  the  product  of  the  two  distances,  in  feet:  43,560 -r  6  (2  ft.  X  3  ft.)  = 
7260.  This  assumes  that  the  acre  is  full  to  the  margin.  A  square  acre  is  a 
little  less  than  209  ft.  on  all  sides. 


n. 

X 

1  i 

n. 

X 

2  i 

n. 

X 

3i 

n. 

X 

4  i 

n. 

X 

5  i 

n. 

X 

6  i 

n. 

X 

7  i 

n. 

X 

8i 

n. 

X 

9  i 

in. 

X 

10  i 

in. 

X 

11  i 

in. 

X 

12  i 

2 

n. 

X 

2  i 

2 

n. 

X 

3i 

2 

n. 

X 

4  i 

2 

n. 

X 

5  i 

2 

n. 

X 

6  i 

2 

in. 

X 

7  i 

2 

n. 

X 

8  i 

2 

in. 

X 

9  i 

2 

in. 

X 

10  i 

2 

in. 

X 

11  i 

2 

in. 

X 

12  i 

3 

n. 

X 

3  i 

3 

n. 

X 

4  i 

3 

in. 

X 

5  i 

Plants 

n 6,272,640 

n 3,136,320 

n 2,090,880 

n 1,568,160 

n 1,254,528 

n 1,045,440 

n 896,091 

n 784,080 

n 696,960 

n 627,264 

n 570,240 

n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  ,  . 
n.  ,  .  , 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  ,  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.   . 


.  .  .  522.720 

.  .  .  1,568,160 

.  .  .  1,045,440 

.  .  .  784.080 

.  .  .  627.264 

.  .  .  522.720 

.  .  .  448.045 

.  .  .  392.040 

.  .  .  348.480 

.  .  .  313.632 

.  .  .  285,120 

.  .  .  261,360 

.  .  .  696,960 

.  .  .  522,720 

u 418,170 


X  6  in.  . 

X  7  in.  . 

X  8  in.  . 

X  9  in.  . 

X  10  in.  . 

X  11  in.  . 

X  12  in.  . 

X  4  in.  . 

X  5  in.  . 

X  6  in.  . 

X  7  in.  . 

X  8  m.. 

X  9  in.  . 

X  10  in.  . 

X  11  in.  . 

X  12  in.  . 

X  5  in.  . 

X  6  in.  . 

X  7  in.  . 

X  8  in.  . 

X  9  in.  . 

X  10  in.  . 

X  11  in.  . 

X  12  in.  . 

X  6  in.  . 

X  7  in.  . 

Plants 
348.480 
298.697 
261.360 
232.320 
209.088 
190,080 
174,240 
392.040 
313.632 
261.360 
224,022 
196.020 
174.240 
156.816 
142,560 
130.680 
250,905 
209,088 
179,218 
156,816 
139,392 
125.452 
114.048 
104,544 
174.240 
149,348 


NUMBER    OF  PLANTS    TO    THE  ACRE 


121 


Plants 


10 

11 

12 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

9 

10 

11 

12 

10 

X  12 

X 

X 

X 

X 


15 
18 
20 
24 
X  30 
X  36 
X  42 
X  48 
X  54 
X  60 
X  15 
X  18 
X  20 
X  30 
X  42 
X  54 
X  15 
X  18 
X  20 
X  24 
X  30 
X  36 
X  42 
X  48 
X  54 


X  20 
X  24 
X  30 
X  38 
X  42 
X  48 
X  54 
X  60 
X  20 
X  24 
X  30 


n.  or  2  ft. 


n.  or  3  ft. 


or  4  ft. 


n. 
n. 

n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  5  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  2  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  3  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  4  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  5  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  2  ft. 
n.   . 

n.  or  3  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  4  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  5  ft. 
n.  .  .  . 
n.  or  2  ft. 
n.  .     .     . 


30,680 

20  in. 

16,160 

20  in. 

04,544 

20  in. 

95,040 

20  in. 

87,120 

20  in. 

28,013 

1  ft. 

12,011 

1  ft. 

99,562 

1ft. 

89,609 

1ft. 

81,462 

1  ft. 

74,674 

1ft. 

98,010 

1  ft. 

87,120 

1  ft. 

78,408 

1  ft. 

71,280 

1  ft. 

65,340 

1  ft. 

77,440 

1  ft. 

69,696 

2  ft. 

63,360 

2  ft. 

58,080 

2  ft. 

62,726 

2  ft. 

52,272 

2  ft. 

41,817 

2  ft. 

34,848 

2  ft. 

31,363 

2  ft. 

26,136 

2  ft. 

20,908 

2  ft. 

17,424 

2  ft. 

14,935 

3  ft. 

13,068 

3  ft. 

11,616 

3  ft. 

10,454 

3  ft. 

34,848 

3  ft. 

29,040 

3  ft. 

26,136 

3  ft. 

17,424 

3  ft. 

12,446 

3  ft. 

9,680 

3  ft. 

27,878 

4  ft. 

23,232 

4  ft. 

20,908 

4  ft. 

17,424 

4  ft. 

13,939 

4  ft. 

11,616 

4  ft. 

9,953 

4  ft. 

8,712 

4  ft. 

7,744 

4  ft. 

6,969 

5  ft. 

19,360 

5  ft. 

17,424 

5  ft. 

14,520 

5  ft. 

11,616 

5  ft. 

9,680 

5  ft. 

8,297 

5  ft. 

7,260 

5  ft. 

6,453 

6  ft. 

5,808 

6  ft. 

15,681 

6  ft. 

13,068 

6  ft. 

10,454 

6  ft. 

Plants 

X  36  in.  or  3  ft.     .     .     .  8,712 

X  42  in 7,467 

X  48  in.  or  4  ft.     .     .     .  6,534 

X  54  in 5,808 

X  60  in.  or  5  ft.      .     .     .  5,227 

X     1  ft 43,560 

X    2  ft 21,780 

X    3  ft 14,520 

X    4  ft 10,890 

X    5  ft 8,712 

X    6  ft 7,260 

X    7  ft 6,223 

X    8  ft 5,445 

X    9  ft 4,840 

X  10  ft 4,356 

X  11  ft 3,960 

X  12  ft 3,630 

X     2  ft 10,890 

X     3  ft 7,260 

X     4  ft 5,445 

X     5  ft 4,356 

X     6  ft 3,630 

X     7  ft 3,111 

X     8  ft 2,722 

X     9  ft 2,420 

X  10  ft 2,178 

X  11  ft 1,980 

X  12  ft 1,815 

X    3  ft 4,840 

X    4  ft 3,630 

X    5  ft 2,904 

X    6  ft 2,420 

X    7  ft 2,074 

X    8  ft 1,815 

X     9  ft 1,613 

X  10  ft 1,452 

X  11  ft 1,320 

X  12  ft 1,210 

X     4  ft 2,722 

X     5  ft 2,178 

X    6  ft 1,815 

X    7  ft 1,556 

X    8  ft 1,361 

X    9  ft 1,210 

X  10  ft 1,089 

X  11  ft 990 

X  12  ft 907 

X    5  ft 1,742 

X    6  ft 1,452 

X    7  ft 1,244 

X    8  ft 1,089 

X    9  ft 968 

X  10  ft 871 

X  11  ft 792 

X  12  ft 726 

X     6  ft 1,210 

X     7  ft 1,037 

X     8  ft C07 

X     9  ft 806 

X  10  ft 726 


122 


PLANTING-TABLES 


Plants 


Plants 


6  ft.  X  11  ft.  .  .  . 

...    660 

18  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    57 

6  ft.  X  12  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    605 

18  ft.  X 

48  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    50 

7  ft.  X  7  ft.  .  .  . 

...    889 

18  ft.  X 

54  ft 

.  .    44 

7  ft.  X  8  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    777 

18  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    40 

7  ft.  X  9  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    691 

20  ft.  X 

20  ft.   .  .  . 

108 

7  ft.  X  10  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    622 

20  ft.  X 

24  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    90 

7  ft.  X  11  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    565 

20  ft.  X 

30  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    72 

7  ft.  X  12  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    518 

20  ft.  X 

36  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    60 

8  ft.  X  8  ft.  .  .  . 

...    680 

20  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    51 

8  ft.  X  9  ft.  .  .  . 

...    605 

20  ft.  X 

48  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    45 

8  ft.  X  10  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    544 

20  ft.  X 

54  ft.   .   .   . 

.  .    40 

8  ft.  X  11  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    495 

20  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    36 

8  ft.  X  12  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    453 

24  ft.  X 

24  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    75 

9  ft.  X  9  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    537 

24  ft.  X 

30  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    60 

9  ft.  X  10  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    484 

24  ft.  X 

36  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    50 

9  ft.  X  11  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    440 

24  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    43 

9  ft.  X  12  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    403 

24  ft.  X 

48  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    37 

9  ft.  X  14  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    345 

24  ft.  X 

54  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    33 

9  ft.  X  15  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    322 

24  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    30 

9  ft.  X  18  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    268 

30  ft.  X 

30  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    48 

9  ft.  X  20  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    242 

30  ft.  X 

36  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    40 

10  ft.  X  10  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    435 

30  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    34 

10  ft.  X  12  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    363 

30  ft.  X 

48  ft.   ... 

.  .    30 

10  ft.  X  15  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    290 

30  ft.  X 

54  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    26 

10  ft.  X  18  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    242 

30  ft.  X 

00  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    24 

10  ft.  X  20  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    217 

36  ft.  X 

36  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    33 

10  ft.  X  24  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    181 

36  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    28 

10  ft.  X  30  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    145 

36  ft.  X 

48  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    25 

10  ft.  X  36  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    121 

36  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    22 

10  ft.  X  42  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    103 

36  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    20 

10  ft.  X  45  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    96 

38  ft.  X 

38  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    30 

10  ft.  X  48  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    90 

38  ft.  X 

40  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    28 

10  ft.  X  54  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    80 

38  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    27 

10  ft.  X  60  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    72 

38  ft.  X 

48  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    23 

12  ft.  X  12  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    302 

38  ft.  X 

50  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    22 

12  ft.  X  15  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    242 

38  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    21 

12  ft.  X  18  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    201 

38  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    19 

12  ft.  X  20  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    181 

40  ft.  X 

40  ft.   ... 

.  .    27 

12  ft.  X  24  ft.  .   .   . 

.  .  .    151 

40  ft.  X 

42  ft.   ... 

.  .    25 

12  ft.  X  30  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    121 

40  ft.  X 

48  ft.   ... 

.  .    22 

12  ft.  X  36  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    100 

40  ft.  X 

50  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    21 

12  ft.  X  42  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    86 

40  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    20 

12  ft.  X  48  ft.  .   .   . 

.  .  .    75 

40  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    18 

12  ft.  X  54  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    67 

42  ft.  X 

42  ft.   .  .  . 

.  .    24 

12  ft.  X  60  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    60 

42  ft.  X 

48  ft.   ... 

.  .    21 

15  ft.  X  15  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    193 

42  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    19 

15  ft.  X  18  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    161 

42  ft.  X 

60  ft.   ... 

.  .    17 

15  ft.  X  20  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .   .    145 

48  ft.  X 

48  ft.   ... 

.  .    18 

15  ft.  X  24  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    121 

48  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    16 

15  ft.  X  30  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .     96 

48  ft.  X 

60  ft.   ... 

.  .    15 

15  ft.  X  36  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .     80 

50  ft.  X 

50  ft 

.  .    17 

15  ft.  X  42  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .     69 

50  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    16 

15  ft.  X  48  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    60 

50  ft.  X 

60  ft.   .   .   . 

.  .    14 

15  ft.  X  54  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    53 

54  ft.  X 

54  ft.   ... 

.  .    14 

15  ft.  X  60  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .     48 

54  ft.  X 

60  ft.   ... 

.  .    13 

18  ft.  X  18  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    134 

60  ft.  X 

60  ft.   ... 

.  .    12 

18  ft.  X  20  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    121 

70  ft.  X 

70  ft.   ... 

.  .     8 

18  ft.  X  24  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    100 

80  ft.  X 

80  ft.   ... 

.  .     7 

18  ft.  X  30  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    80 

90  ft.  X 

90  ft.   ... 

.  .     5 

18  ft.  X  36  ft.  .  .  . 

.  .  .    67 

100  ft.  X  100  ft.   ... 

.  .     4 

FAMILY   GARDEN 


123 


Quincunx  plant- 
ing. 

To  find  the  num- 
ber of  plants  re- 
quired to  set  an 
acre  by  the  quin- 
cunx method,  ascer- 
tain from  the  above 
tables  the  number 
required  at  the 
given  rectangular 
distances,  and  then 
increase  the  number 
by  one-half. 

The  real  quincunx 
planting  places  a 
tree  in  the  center  of 
the  square.  The  § 
trees  cannot  all  be 
equal  distance  apart. 
The  so-called  quin- 
cunx that  places  all 
trees  at  equal  dis- 
tances is  only  the 
square  method  run- 
ning  diagonally 
across  the  field. 

Plan  for  a  Home 
Garden  (Fig.  4) 

Many  plans  may 
be  found  in  books 
and  periodicals  for 
home  gardens. 
They  are  not  to  be 
accepted  literally,  *" 
but  as  suggestions 
of  the  problems  in- 
volved. 


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70- 

E 

Fig.  4. — A  garden  for  a  family  of  six 
persons  (Suburban  Life). 


CHAPTER  VII 

Maturities,  Yields,  and  Multiplication 

Any  figures  of  dates  of  maturity  of  the  various  plants  or  crops  and 
of  yields  must  necessarily  be  only  approximately  or  averagely  correct ; 
but  methods  of  multiplication  allow  of  more  definite  statement. 


Maturity-Tables 

Time  required  for  maturity  of  different  garden  crops,  reckoned  from  the 
sowing  of  the  seeds 

Days  from  Seed 

Beans,  string 45-65 

Beans,  shell 65-70 

Beets,  turnip        65 

Beets,  long  blood 150 

Cabbage,  early 105 

Cabbage,  late 150 

Cauliflower 110 

Corn 75 

Egg-plant 150-160 

Lettuce 65 

Melon,  water 120-140 

Melon,  musk        120-140 

Onion 135-150 

Pepper  140-150 

Pumpkin 100-125 

Radish 30-45 

Squash,  summer 60-65 

Squash,  winter 125 

Tomatoes 150 

Turnips 60-70 

Time  required,  from  setting,  for  fr nit-plants  to  hear.     (For  northern  and 
central  latitudes) 

Apple  —  3  to  5  years.     Good  croji  in  about  10  to  18  years. 
Apple,  on  paradise  stocks,  good  crops  in  4  to  5  years. 
Blackberry  —  1  year.     Good  crops  in  2  and  3  years. 

124 


MATURITY  AND    YIELD    TABLES  125 

Citrous  fruits  (oranges,  lemons,  etc.)  —  2  to  3  years.  Good  crop 
2  or  3  years  later. 

Cranberry  —  3  years  gives  a  fair  crop. 

Currant  —  1  year.     Good  crops  in  2  and  3  years. 

Gooseberry  —  1  year.     Good  crops  in  2  and  3  years. 

Grape  — ■  Fair  crop  in  4  years. 

Peach  —  2  j^ears.     Good  crop  in  4  and  5  years. 

Pear  —  3  or  4  years.  Fair  crop  in  6  to  12  years ;  dwarfs  in  5  to  7 
years. 

Persimmon,  or  Kaki  —  1  to  3  years. 

Quince  —  2  years.     Good  crop  in  4  years. 

Raspberry  —  1  year.     Good  crop  in  2  and  3  years. 

Plum  —  3  years.     Good  crop  in  5  or  6  years. 

Strawberry  —  1  year.     Heaviest  crop  usually  in  2  years. 

Average  profitable  longevity  of  fruit-plants  under  high  culture 


Apple 35-50  years 

(Less  in  parts  of  the  prairie  states 
and  more  in  northeastern  states.) 

Blackberry 6-10  years 

Currant 20  years 

Gooseberry 20  years 

Orange  and  Lemon    .     .       50  or  more 


Peach 8-12  years 

Pear 50-75  years 

Persimmon,    or   Kaki,    as  long   as   an 
apple-tree. 

Plum 20-25  years 

Raspberry 6-10  years 

Strawberry 1-3  years 


When  serious  trouble  from  diseases  is  to  be  apprehended,  the  plan- 
tation may  be  brought  into  early  fruiting  and  then  destroyed  before  the 
disease  makes  great  headway.  This  is  particularly  applicable  to  black- 
berries, raspberries,  and  strawberries. 

Yield- Tables 

Average  full  yields  per  acre  of  various  horticultural  crops 

The  yields  of  those  crops  in  which  the  salable  products  are  equal  in 
number  to  the  number  of  plants  per  acre,  and  in  which  the  product  is 
sold  by  the  piece,  are  to  be  calculated  from  the  planting-tables  in 
Chap.  VI  —  such  as  cabbage,  celery,  and  the  like.  Usually  the  profits 
are  secured  from  yields  above  the  average.  The  statements  here 
given  are  growers'  estimates  rather  than  census  figures. 

Apples  —  A  tree  20  to  30  years  old  may  be  expected  to  yield  from 
25  to  40  bushels  every  alternate  year. 


126  MATURITIES,    YIELDS,   AND   MULTIPLICATION 

Artichoke  —  200  to  300  bushels. 

Beans,  Green  or  Snap  —  75  to  120  bushels. 

Beans,  Lima  —  75  to  100  bushels  of  dry  beans. 

Beets  —  400  to  700  bushels. 

Carrots  —  400  to  700  bushels. 

Corn  —  50  to  75  bushels,  shelled. 

Cranberry  —  100  to  300  bushels.     900  bushels  have  been  reported. 

Cucumber  —  About  150,000  fruits  per  acre. 

Currant  —  100  bushels. 

Egg-plant  —  1  or  2  large  fruits  to  the  plant  for  the  large  sorts  like 
New  York  Purple,  and  from  3  to  8  fruits  for  the  smaller  varieties. 

Gooseberry  —  100  bushels. 

Grape  —  3  to  5  tons.  Good  raisin  vineyards  in  California,  15  years 
old,  \s\\\  produce  from  10  to  12  tons. 

Horseradish  —  3  to  5  tons. 

Kohlrabi  —  500  to  1000  bushels. 

Onion,  from  seed  —  300  to  800  bushels.  600  bushels  is  a  large 
average  yield. 

Parsnips  —  500  to  800  bushels. 

Pea,  green  in  pod  —  100  to  150  bushels. 

Peach  —  In  full  bearing,  a  peach  tree  should  produce  from  5  to  10 
bushels. 

Pear  —  A  tree  20  to  25  years  old  should  give  from  25  to  45 
bushels. 

Pepper  —  30,000  to  50,000  fruits. 

Plum  —  5  to  8  bushels  may  be  considered  an  average  crop  for  an 
average  tree. 

Potato  —  100  to  300  bushels. 

Quince  —  100  to  300  bushels. 

Raspberry  and  blackberry  —  50  to  100  bushels. 

Salsify  —  200  to  300  bushels. 

Spinach  —  200  barrels. 

Strawberry  —  75  to  250  or  even  300  bushels. 

Tomato  —  8  to  16  tons. 

Turnip  —  600  to  1000  bushels. 

For  yields  of  seeds  in  various  garden  crops  (by  seed-growers),  see 
p.  105. 


YIELD-TABLES 


127 


Yields  of  field  crops  (Cyclo.  Am.  Agric.) 

As  reported  by  observers  in  several  parts  of  the  continent 


Quebec 


Average 


New  York 


Average        Best 


North  Carolina 


Average 


Best 


Alabama 


Average 


Best 


Alfalfa  .     . 
Barley  .     . 
Beans,  field 
Broom-corn 
Buckwheat 
Cabbage 
Carrots 
Clover  . 
Cotton  . 

Cowpeas 

Field-pea 

Flax      . 

Kohlrabi 

Lespedeza 

Maize    . 

Mangels 

Melilotus 

Millet  . 

Oats      . 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Pumpkin 

Rape     . 

Rice 

Rutabaga 

Rye       . 

Sorghum 


Soybean     . 

Sugar-beets 

Sugar-cane 

Sweet-potatoes 

Timothy 

Tobacco 

Turnips 

Vetch    . 

Wheat  . 


3  tons 
25  bu. 
20  bu. 

25  bu. 
12  tons 
12  tons 
2  tons 


25  bu. 
15  bu. 


25  bu. 
20  tons 


35  bu. 
150  bu. 
20  tons 


10  tons 
15  bu. 


15  tons 


2  tons 
1000  lb. 
10  tons 
2  tons 
15  bu. 


2.3  tons 
23.9  bu. 
10.5  bu. 
565  lb. 
16.9  bu. 
10  tons 
10  tons 
1.1  tons 


45  bu. 
15  bu. 


1.7  tons 
10  bu. 
10  bu. 
455  lb. 
10  bu. 
100  crates 

1-2  tons 
l^  bale 
10  bu. 
1.5  tons 
1-2  tons 


5  tons 
25  bu. 


30  bu. 
200  crates 

3  tons 
2  bales 
30  bu. 
5  tons 


10  bu. 


100  bu. 

40  tons 

5  tons 
80  bu. 
1000  bu. 
500  bu. 


1.25  tons 
13  bu. 

2  tons 
1.5  tons 
10  bu. 

70  bu. 


2  tons 
100  bu. 


4  tons 
50  bu. 


14  bu. 


60  bu. 


14  tons 
16  bu. 


7.8  tons 


18.9  bu. 


30  tons 
35  bu. 


30  tons 


200  bu. 
4  tons 


28  tons 
60  bu. 


360  lb. 
100  bu. 
5.5  bu. 
5-6  tons 
12  bu. 
1.7  tons 

7-8  tons 
85  bu. 
1-2  tons 
650  lb. 
100  bu. 
1-2  tons 
7-8  bu. 


3  tons 
30  bu. 


12  bu. 

7bu. 
2.5  tons 
15  bu. 
1.7  tons 

200  3 
80  bu. 

500  lb. 

1.5  tons 
8bu. 


7  tons 
45  bu. 


600  lb. 
10  tons 


3  tons 
1000  lb. 


30  bu. 


2  tons 
75  bu. 

3.5  ton; 

3  tons 
70  bu. 

300  bu 


30  bu. 

20  bu. 
7  tons 
25  bu, 
4  tons 

600' 
400  bu. 

1000  lb. 

3  tons 
30  bu. 


Including  varieties  grown  for  stock-feeding. 


2  Lint. 


3  Gallons  of  syrup. 


128  MATURITIES,    YIELDS,  AND   MULTIPLICATION 


Yields  of  field  crops  —  Continued 

As  reported  for  this  volume  by  observers  in  several  parts  of  the  continent 


Indiana 

Wisconsin 

Manitoba 

Eastern  Texas 

Average 

Best 

Average 

Best 

Average 

Best 

Average 

Best 

Alfalfa    . 
Barley    . 
Beans,  field 
Broom-corn 
Buckwheat 
Cabbage 
Carrots  . 
Clover    . 

Cotton   . 

Cowpeas 

Field-pea 

Flax  .     . 

Kohlrabi 

Lespedeza 

Maize     . 

Mangels 

Melilotus 

Millet     . 

Oats  .     . 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Pumpkin 

Rape       . 

Rice 

Rutabaga 

Rye   .     . 

Sorghum 

Soybean 

Sugar-beets 

Sugar-cane 

Swoct-potat 

Timothy 

Tobacco 

Turnips 

\'ftrh      . 

Wheat    . 

oes 

3-4  tons 
25  bu. 

1.5  tons 
18  bu. 

40  bu. 
18  tons 

1.7  tons 

30  bu. 

100  bu. 

14  bu. 

9  tons 

20  bu. 
14  tons 

1.5  tons 
14  bu. 

6  tons 
40  bu. 

2.5  tons 
30  bu. 

100  bu. 
25  tons 

4  tons 

SObu. 

200  bu. 

50bu.» 
15  tons 

35  bu. 
20  tons 

2  tons 
45  bu. 

3  tons 
30  bu. 
18  bu. 

15  bu. 

10  tons 
3  bu.  seed 
1.5  tons 

8bu. 
10  bu. 
13  bu. 

41  bu. 
25  tons 
2.5  tons 
30bu.seed 
2  tons 
36  bu. 
8  tons 
92  bu. 

15  tons 

12  tons 

16  bu. 

15  bu.  seed 
8  tons 
15  bu. 
12  tons 

1.5  tons 
1280  lb. 
10  tons 
8  tons  2 
12  bu. 

6  tons 
65  bu. 
30  bu. 

35  bu. 

18  tons 
5  bu.  seed 
4  tons 

15  bu. 
25  bu. 
25  bu. 

100  bu. 
60  tons 
4  tons 
65bu.seed 
4  tons 
97  bu. 
15  tons 
400  bu. 

35  tons 

40  tons 
40  bu. 
25bu.seed 
15  tons 
35  bu. 
30  tons 

3.5  tons 
1800  lb. 
35  tons 
12  tons  2 
35  bu. 

3  tons 
30  bu. 

300  bu. 
2  tons 

40  bu. 
18  bu. 

800  bu. 

2  tons 

40  bu. 
300  bu. 
300  bu. 

10  tons 

500  bu. 
20  bu. 

300  bu. 

1.5  tons 

600  bu. 
2  tons 
27  bu. 

4  tons 
75  bu. 

800  bu. 
4  tons 

65  bu. 

1200  bu. 

4  tons 

110  bu. 
600  bu. 
800  bu. 

1000  bu. 
40  bu. 

800  bu. 

4  tons 

1100  bu. 
3  tons 
56  bu. 

3  tons 
150  bu. 

4000  lb. 
9000  lb. 

Va  bale 
1.5  tons 
40  bu. 

1200  lb. 

SObu. 

5  tons 

1  ton 

35  bu. 
9000  lb 
60  bu. 

6  tons 

50  bu. 
6  tons 

2.5  tons 

4  tons 
25  tons 
100  bu. 

800  lb. 
6  tons 

12  bu. 

7  tons 
200  bu. 

6000  lb. 
12.000  lb. 

2  bales 

3  tons 
60  bu. 

2000  lb. 

90  bu. 
6  tons 

2  tons 

85  bu. 
12.000  lb. 
150  bu. 

8  tons 

100  bu. 
8  tons 

6  tons 

6  tons 
40  tons 
400  bu. 

12001b. 
8  tons 

48  bu. 

1  Winter  rye. 


*  Green  feed. 


YIELD-TABLES 


129 


Yields  of  field  crops  —  Continued 

As  reported  for  this  volume  by  observers  in  several  parts  of  the  continent 


New  Mexico 

Wyoming 

Washington 

British  Co- 

L.VMBIA. 

Average 

Best 

Average 

Be.st 

Average 

Best 

Range 

Alfalfa      .     . 
Barley      .     . 
Beans,  field  . 
Broom-corn  . 
Buckwheat   . 
Cabbage  .     . 
Carrots    .     . 
Clover      .     . 
Cotton     ,     , 
Cowpeas 
Field-pea      . 
Flax    .     .     . 
Kohlrabi       . 
Lespedeza     . 
Maize       .     . 
Mangels  .     . 
Meliiotus      . 
Millet       .     . 
Oats     .     .     . 
Parsnips  .     . 
Potatoes 
Pumpkin 

Rape   .     .     . 
Rice     .     .     . 
Rutabaga      . 
Rye     .     .     . 
Sorghum 
Soybean  .     . 
Sugar-beets  . 
Sugar-cane   . 
Sweet-potato 
Timothy .     . 

Tobacco  .     . 
Turnip     .     . 
Vetch  .     .     . 

Wheat      .     . 

3  tons 
40  bu. 
600  lb. 

22  bu. 
35  bu. 

11.5  tons 
10,000  lb. 

30  bu. 

7  tons 
70  bu. 
1000  lb. 

60  bu. 
85  bu. 

19.5  tons 
18,000  lb. 

63  bu. 

3  tons 
35  bu. 

12,0001b. 
18  bu. 

40  bu. 
75  bu. 

15  tons 
18  bu. 

10  tons 

1.5  tons 

25.5  bu. 

8.5  tons 

16,150  1b. 
21,1071b. 

34.7  bu. 
16  bu. 
15,4751b. 

137  bu. 
8200  lb. 
972  bu. 

34  bu. 
28.7  tons 

40  tons 

50  bu.3 
78  bu." 

6  tons  1 
29.7  bu. 
13  bu. 
3000  lb. 
19.4  bu. 
?855heads 
476  bu. 

2.2  tons 

26  bu. 
5.7  bu. 

21  bu. 
600  bu. 

1.5  tons 
42  bu. 
377  bu. 
142  bu. 
1384 
pumpkins 

14.6  bu. 

3.3  tons 
2.9  tons 
90  bu. 

3.7  tons 
1.5  tons 
236  lb. 

3  tons 
25  bu. 

lOtonsi 
80  bu. 

5  tons 

40  bu. 

150  bu. 
500  bu. 

18  tons  2 

irrigated 
dry  land 

100  bu. 

35bu.tol05bu. 
15bu.  to25bu. 

13bu.to41bu. 

3  tons  to  25  tons 

4  tons  to  85  tons 
1.5  tons  to  4.5  t. 

25  bu.to  106  bu. 

10  t.  to  16  tons 

10t.to45t.5 
13  t.  to50t. 

1  ton  to  6  tons 
35  bu.  to  125  bu. 

8  t.  to  28.5 1. 

20  t.  to  63  t. 
15  bu.to  32  bu. 

4.5  tons 
6  tons  to  23  tons 

2  t.  to  5.5  tons 

11  bu.to  43  bu. 

1  Under  irrigation.    On  dry  land,  2.5  tons  and  4  tons,  respectively. 
2  Under  irrigation,  s  Field  culture.  *  Garden  culture.  *  For  silage. 


130 


MATURITIES,    YIELDS,  AND   MULTIPLICATION 


Propagation-Tables 

Tabular  statement  of  the  ways  in  which  ylants  are  'propagated'^ 


A.    By  Seeds  —  Seedage 


I.  On    their 
own  roots 


B.  By  Buds 


By  unde- 
tached 
parts  — 
Layerage 


II.  By  de- 
detached 
parts 


II.  On  roots 
of  other 
plants  — 
Graftage 


By      de- 
tached 
scions 


1.  Root-tips. 

Stolons  and  runners. 
Layers  proper. 

Simple. 

Serpentine. 

Mound  or  Stools. 

Pot  or  Chinese. 

By  undivided  parts.  —  Separa- 
tion. (Bulbs,  corms,  bulblets,  bulb 
scales,  tubers,  etc.) 

'  Division. 
Cuttings 
proper. 
Of  stems. 
Growing 
wood. 
Ripened 
wood. 
Of  tubers. 
Of  roots. 
Of  leaves, 
flute,    veneer, 


By  divided  parts 
—  Cuttage 


Budding :    Shield 

ring,  annular,  whistle  or  tubular. 
Grafting :    Whip,    saddle,    splice, 
veneer,  cleft,    bark,  herbaceous, 
seed,  double,  cutting. 
By  undetached  scions.  —  Inarching. 


Particular  methods  by  which  various  fruits  are  multiplied 

Barberry Cuttings  of  mature  wood  ;  seeds. 

Orange Seeds  ;  seedlings  budded  or  grafted. 

Figs Cuttings,  either  of  soft  or  mature  wood. 

Mulberry Cuttings  of  mature  wood.     Some  varieties  are 

root-grafted,  and  some  are  budded. 
Olive Cuttings   of   mature   or   even   old   wood.     Chips 

from  the  trunks  of  old  trees  are  sometimes  used. 

Pomegranate Cuttings,  layers,  and  seeds. 

Apple  and  Pear       ....     Seeds  ;  seedlings  budded  or  grafted. 

Peach  and  other  stone-fruits      Seeds  ;  seedlings  budded.     Peach-trees  are  sold  at 

one  year  from  the  l>ud,   but  other  stone-fruit 

trees  are  planted  when  two  or  three  years  old. 

Quince Cuttings,  usually  ;  the  cuttings  often  grafted. 

Grape Cuttings  of  from  one  to  three  buds  ;   layers. 

Currant  and  Gooseberry  .     .     Cuttings  ;  gooseberry  oftener  by  mound-layers. 
Raspberries,  red      ....     Suckers  from  the  root ;  root-cuttings. 
Raspberries,  black  and  purple     Layers  from  tips  of  canes  ;  root-cuttings. 

Blackberry Root-cuttings  ;   suckers  from  the  root. 

Dewberry Layers  of  tips  of  the  canes  ;   root-cuttings. 

Dwarf  Juneberry    ....     Sprouts  or  suckers  from  the  root. 
Cranberry Layers  or  divisions. 

»  Modified  from  a  synopsis  prepared  by  B.  M.  Watson,  Jr.,  Bussey  Institution. 


PROPAGATION-TABLES  131 

Strawberry Runners ;  tip-cuttings. 

Banana Suckers  from  the  crown. 

Stocks  commonly  used  for  various  fruits 

Almond Peach,  hard-shell  almond,  plum. 

Apple Common  apple  seedlings.   Paradise  and  Doucin 

stocks,  crab-apple  and  wild  crab.  "  French 
crab  "  stocks  are  common  apple  seedlings  reared 
in  France  and  imported. 

Apricot Apricot  and  peach  in  mild  climates,  and  plum  in 

severe  ones  ;  Marianna. 

Cherry Mazzard    stocks    are    preferred    for    standards  ; 

Mahaleb  stocks  are  used  for  dwarfing.  The 
wild  pin-cherry  {Prunus  Pennsylvanica)  is 
sometimes  used  as  stock  in  the  Northwest,  on 
account  of  its  hardiness.  Seedlings  of  Morelio 
cherries  are  also  used  there. 

Medlar Hawthorn,  medlar,  quince. 

Mulberry Seedlings  of  white  and  Russian  mulberry;  cut- 
tings of  Downing. 

Orange Seedlings ;     Otaheite   orange,    shaddock ;     Citrus 

trifoliata,  particularly  for  dwarfs. 

Peach  and  Nectarine  .     .     .     Peach.     Plum    is    often   used    when    dwarfs    are 

wanted,  or  when  the  peach  must  be  grown  in  a 
too  severe  climate  or  upon  heavy  soil. 

Pear Pear  (seedlings  of  common  pear  and  the  Chinese 

type).  Quince  (rarely  mountain  ash,  or 
thorn)  for  dwarfs.     Apple  temporarily. 

Persimmon,  Japanese       .     .     Native  persimmon. 

Plum Plum,  myrobalan  plum,  peach  ;  Marianna. 

Quince The  finer  varieties  are  sometimes  grafted  upon 

strong-growing  kinds  like  the  Angers.  When 
cuttings  are  difficult  to  root,  they  are  some- 
times grafted  upon  apple  roots,  the  foster-root 
being  removed  upon  transplanting,  if  it  does 
not  fall  away  of  itself. 

How  vegetable  crops  are  propagated 
By  seeds 
Artichoke,  globe  also  by  oflfsets  (see  p.  132)     Kohlrabi 

Asparagus  Leek 

Beans  of  all  kinds  Lettuce 

Beet  Martynla 

Borecole  or  kale  Muskmelon 

Brussels  sprout  Mustard 

Cabbage  Onion  (see  also  p.  132) 

Carrot  Parsley 

Cauliflower  and  broccoli  Parsnip 

Celeriac  Pea 

Celery  Pepper 

Chicory  Pumpkin 

Corn  Salsify 

Corn-salad  Spinach 

Cress  Squash 

Cucumber  Tomato 

Dandelion  Turnip 

Egg-plant  Watermelon 
Endive 


132  MATURITIES,    YIELDS,  AND    MVLTITLICATION 


By  other  means  than  seeds 

Artichoke,  globe ;  by  seeds,  but  many  worthless  plants  may  be  secured ;  by 
suckers  about  the  crown  of  the  old  plant,  if  particular  strains  are  to  be  per- 
petuated. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem  ;   by  tubers,  or  divisions  of  the  tubers. 

Horseradish,  cuttings  of  side  roots. 

Mushroom,  by  spawn  (or  dried  and  prepared  mycelium)  ;  latterly  also  by 
spores. 

Onion,  the  "black  seed"  or  usual  onions,  by  seed  ;  potato  or  Egyptian  onions, 
by  "  tops"  or  bulblets  borne  in  the  place  of  flowers  ;  multipliers,  by  the  natu- 
ral di\'isions  of  the  bulbs.  Onion  "sets"  are  small  dry  onions  that  renew 
their  growth  when  planted. 

Potato,  cuttings  of  the  tubers. 

Rhubarb,  or  pie-plant ;  by  seeds,  but  these  give  variable  progeny ;  preferably 
by  division  of  the  roots  into  strong  eyes. 

Sea-kale  ;   by  seeds,  but  better  by  root-cuttings  from  the  best  plants. 

Yam,  Chinese.     Bulblets  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves ;   division  of  the  root. 

How  farm  crops  are  propagated 

By  seeds 

Alfalfa  Peanut 

Barley  Pumpkin  and  Squash 

Bean  Rape 

Broom-corn  Rice 

Buckwheat  Root-crops 

Cabbage  Rubber,   Para    (Hevea),   seeds    in 

Clover  nursery  beds. 

Coffee,   seeds  started  in  beds,  and  trans-     Rubber,       Panama         (Castilloa), 

planted.  seeds  in  nursery  beds. 

Corn  Rubber,    Ceara    (Manihot),  seeds 
Cotton  and  cuttings. 

Cowpea  Rye 

Flax  Sorghum 

Ginseng  Sugar-beet 

Grasses  Tea,  in  nursery  beds 

Hemp  Teasel 

Kafir  Tobacco 
Millet                                                             •  Vetch 

Oats  Wheat 

By  other  parts  than  seeds 

Arrow-root,  division  of  underground  parts. 

Cassava,  mostly  by  cuttings  of  the  seed-canes,  as  for  sugar-cane ;  early  va- 
rieties sometimes  by  seed.s. 

Hop,  cuttings  of  the  underground  stems  or  "roots." 

Potato,  cuttings  of  the  underground  stems  or  tubers. 

Sugar-cane,  cuttings  of  the  canes ;  rarely  by  seeds  for  production  of  new  va- 
rieties. 

Sweet-potato,  sprouts  from  the  potatoes,  in  seed-beds. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Crops  for  Special  Farm  Practices.     Home   Storage   and 
Keeping  of  Crops 

Different  systems  or  plans  of  farming  are  expressed  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  cropping  scheme ;  and  some  of  these  schemes  are  so  special 
that  they  may  be  thrown  together  in  a  reference  advice-book. 

Forage  Crops 

Forage  is  herbage  food,  whether  green  or  cured.  The  forage  crops 
are  grasses  (whether  utilized  in  meadows,  pastures,  or  otherwise),  all 
coarse  natural  grazing  crops  such  as  animals  are  likely  to  find  provided 
in  nature,  and  miscellaneous  roots  and  vegetative  parts  grown  specifi- 
cally for  feeding  purposes.  They  are  distinguished  from  the  threshed 
grains  and  all  manufactured  products.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that 
there  are  two  cultural  groups  comprised  in  the  class  of  forage  crops,  — 
the  group  occupying  the  land  for  a  series  of  years  (meadows  and  pas- 
tures), and  the  group  comprising  the  annual-grown  or  biennial-grown 
plants  (as  maize,  cowpea,  pea,  millet,  roots).  These  groups  overlap, 
however,  so  that  no  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn  between  them. 

The  word  roughage  is  applied  to  the  coarser  forage  products,  as 
maize,  cowpeas,  kafir;  sometimes  it  is  used  as  equivalent  to  forage. 

Fodder  is  practically  equivalent  to  the  word  "  forage,"  but  is  less 
specific ;  it  is  by  some  restricted  to  dried  or  cured  forage.  The  word  is 
commonly  used  for  the  coarser  kinds,  in  distinction  from  hay. 

Some  of  the  leading  forage  crops  are  alfalfa,  cabbage,  the  various 
cereals,  clovers,  cowpea,  kafir,  maize  or  Indian  corn,  mangels,  millet, 
rape,  soybean,  sorghum,  vetches. 

Soiling  is  the  feeding  of  green  harvested  forage  direct  from  the  field  to 
the  animals.  The  feed  is  carried  to  them.  This  system  is  distinguished 
from  pasturing.  The  animals  are  kept  in  small  inclosures  or  in  stalls, 
and  thereby  their  feed  is  regulated  and  the  standing  crop  is  not  injured 
by  them.  The  term  is  probably  derived  from  that  use  or  origin  of 
the  verb  "  to  soil  "  that  indicates  to  satisfy  or  to  fill. 

133 


134  CROPS  FOR   SPECIAL   FARM  PRACTICES 

A  species  of  pasturing  is  sometimes  known  as  soiling.  By  means 
of  movable  fences,  the  animals  are  allowed  to  graze  a  part  of  the  crop 
clean  antl  then  to  move  on  at  the  next  feeding  to  fresh  foraging.  This 
use  of  the  term  is  allowable,  since  the  object  is  the  same,  —  to  sui)i)ly 
the  animal  with  a  given  amount  of  succulent  food ;  the  animal  does  the 
harvesting.     This  practice  may  be  known  as  pasture  soiling. 

It  would  not  do  to  allow  animals  to  roam  at  will  and  to  gorge  themselves 
in  such  crops  as  maize,  growing  grain,  heavy  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpeas ; 
consequently  the  animals  are  soiled  on  these  crops  in  one  way  or  another. 

Silage  is  green  or  uncured  forage  that  is  preserved,  or  ensiled,  in  a 
tight  receptacle  or  silo  (see  Chap.  XXV).  The  following  croj)s  have  at 
various  times  been  recommended  for  ensiling :  corn,  clovers,  alfalfa, 
meadow-grasses,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  Canada  field  peas,  sorghum,  sun- 
flower, millet,  apple  pomace,  beet  pulp,  canning  house  refuse. 

Soiling  Crops 

The  more  important  soiling  corps  are :  winter  grains  (cut  before 
blooming),  peas  and  oats,  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch,  soybeans,  millet,  cow- 
peas, corn,  sorghum,  and  rape. 

If  it  is  desired  to  feed  green  crops  throughout  the  entire  season,  the 
following  rotation  is  suggested  (Woll) :  — 

(1)  Winter  wheat  or  rye,  ready  to  cut  and  feed  during  May; 

(2)  Green  clover,  for  feeding  during  the  early  part  of  June ; 

(3)  Oats  and  peas,  sown  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  and  later 
two  or  three  times  at  weekly  intervals;  available  for  feeding  during 
the  remainder  of  June  and  July; 

(4)  Corn,  or  corn  and  sorghum,  planted  at  the  usual  time,  for  feeding 
in  August  and  September; 

(5)  The  land  occupied  by  oats  and  peas  when  cleared  may  be  sown  to 
millet  or  barley,  for  feeding  during  the  fall  months. 

The  following  crops  for  partial  soiling  are  reconmicnded  by  Jordan : 
Three  sowings  of  peas  and  oats  in  May  and  early  June,  and  two 
plantings  of  corn,  one  at  the  usual  time,  the  other  two  weeks  later. 
These  crops  will  furnish  a  supply  of  green  feed  when  this  is  most  likely 
to  be  needed.  Quincy  included  four  crops  in  his  system,  viz.  early 
clover  (for  feeding  during  May  and  June),  oats  (for  July),  corn  (for 
August),  second  growth  of  clover  or  grass  (September  to  October  15), 
tops  of  carrots  and  turnips,  cabbages  (October  15  to  November). 


SOILING   CROP    TABLES 


135 


Special  rotations  for  soiling  crops  have  been  reconiniended  by  various 
authorities,  and  the  farmer  has  the  choice  of  a  variety  of  crops  that 
may  be  grown  for  this  purpose.  The  rotations  suitable  for  soiling  in- 
cluded below  are  given  as  guides  for  farmers  living  in  the  states  men- 
tioned, or  under  similar  agricultural  conditions  (collected  by  Well) :  — 

Soiling  crops  adapted  to  northern  New  England  (Lindsey) 
(For  10  cows'  entire  soiling) 


Kind 

Seed  per  Acre 

Time  of  Seed- 
ing 

Area 

Time  of  Cutting 

Rye 

Wheat      .... 
Red  clover    .     .     . 

Grass  and  clover    . 

Vetch  and  oats 
Vetch  and  oats  .     . 

Peas  and  oats    .     . 

Peas  and  oats    .     . 

Barnyard  millet     . 
Barnyard  millet     . 
Soybeans  (medium 
green)   .... 
Corn 

2bu. 

2  bu. 
20  1b. 

[  ^  bu.  red-top,   1   pk. 
\      timothy,  10   lb.  red[ 
[      clover                          J 

3  bu.  oats,  50  lb.  vetch 
3  bu.  oats,  50  lb.  vetch 

1  1^  bu.  Canada  peas.l 

1.      13^  bu.  oats              j 

1^  bu.  Canada  peas,l 

1      13^  bu  oats              J 

Ipk. 

Ipk. 

18  qt. 

Sept.  10-15 
Sept.  10-15 
July  15-Aug.  1 

September 

April  20 
April  30 

April  20 

April  30 

May  10 
May  25 
May  20 

May  20 
May  30 
July  15 

August  5 

^  acre 
^  acre 
^  acre 

§  acre 

^  acre 
^  acre 

^acre 

^  acre 

§  acre 
:   acre 
;   acre 

§  acre 
i  acre 
^  acre 

1  acre 

May  20-May  30 
June  1-June  15 
June  15-June  25 

June 15-Juno30 

June  25-JuIy  10 
July  10-July  20 
June  25- July  10 

July  10-July  20 

July25-Aug.  10 
Aug.  10-Aug.  20 
Aug.  25-Sept.  15 

Aug  25-Sept.  10 

Corn 

Sept.  10-Sept.  20 

Hungarian    .     .     . 
Barley  and  peas    . 

1  bu. 
flHbu.peas,  1^  bu.\ 

Sept.  20-Sept.  30 
Oct.  1-Oct.  20 

Time  of  planting  and  feeding  soiling  crops  (Phelps) 

The  dates  given  in  the  table  apply  to  central  Connecticut  and  regions  under 
approximately  similar  conditions 


Kind  of  Fodder 


Rye  fodder 

Wheat  fodder    .... 

Clover 

Grass  (from  grass-lands) 

Oats  and  peas 

Oats  and  peas 

Oats  and  peas 

Hungarian 

Clover  rowen  (from  3)    .     . 

Soybeans       

Cowpeas 

Rowen    grass    (from    grass- 
lands)     

Barley  and  peas     .     .     .     , 


Amount  of 

Seed 

PER  Acre 


2H  to  3  bu. 
2}4  to  3  bu. 
20  1b. 

2  bu.  each 
2  bu.  each 
2  bu.  each 
IH  bu. 

1  bu. 
1  bu. 


2  bu.  each 


Approximate 

Time 
OF  Seeding 


September  1 
Sept.  5-10 
July  20-30 

April  10 
April  20 
April  30 
June  1 

May  25 
June  5-10 


Aug.  5-10 


Approximate 
Time  of 
Feeding 


May  10-20 
May  20,  June  5 
June  5-15 
June  15-25 
June  25,  July  10 
July  10-20 
July  20,  Aug.  1 
Aug.  1-10 
Aug.  10-20 
Aug.  20,  Sept.  5 
Sept.  5-20 

Sept.  20-30 
Oct.  1-30 


136 


CROPS   FOR   SPECIAL   FARM   PRACTICES 


Soiling  crops  for  Pennsylvania  (Watson  and  Mairs) 


Chop 


Rye 

Alfalfa  

Clover  and  timothy 

Peas  and  oats 

Alfalfa  (second  crop)  .... 
Sorghum  and  cowpeas  (after  rj^e) 
Cowpeas  (after  peas  and  oats) 


Area  for 
10  Cows 


}4  acre 
2  acres 
^  acre 

1  acre 

2  acres 
}/2  acre 
1  acre 


When  to  be  Fed 


May  15-June  1 
June  1-June  12 
June  12-June  24 
June  24-July  15 
July  15- Aug.  11 
Aug.  11-Aug.  28 
Aug.  28-Sept.  30 


Crops  for  partial  soiling  for  Illinois  during  midsummsr  (Fraser) 


Kind  of  Fodder 


Corn,  early,  sweet,  or  dent 
Corn,  medium,  dent    . 

Cowpeas 

Soybeans  

Oats  and  Canada  peas 

Oats  and  Canada  peas 

I.  Rape  (Dwarf  Essex)    . 

8.  Rape,  second  sowing   . 

9.  Rape,  third  sowing      .     . 


Amount  of 

Seed 
PER  Acre 


6qt. 
5  qt. 
1  bu. 
1  bu. 

1  bu.  each 
1  bu.  each 
4  1b. 
4  1b. 
4  1b. 


Approximate 

Time 

of  Seeding 

May  1 

May  15 

May  15 

May  15 

April  15 

May  1 

May  1 

June  1 

July  1 

Approximate  Time  op 
Feeding 

July  1-Aug.  1 
Aug.  1-Sept.  30 
Aug.  1-Sept.  15 
Aug.  1-Sept.  15 
July  1-July  15 
July  15-Aug.  1 
July  1-Aug.  1 
Aug.  1-Sept.  1 
Sept.  1-Oct.  1 


Succession  of  soiling  crops  for  dairy  cows  for  Wisconsin  (Carlyle) 


Pounds 

OF 

Seed 
per 

Time 

FOR 

Sow- 

Approximate 

Degrees  of 
Maturity 

Crop 

Time  of  Cutting 

11 
11 

i 

h 

c 

Palata- 

BILITY 

Acre 

< 

Fall  rye 

168 

Sept.  10 

May  15-June  1 

24S 

38 

}^ 

Before  blooming 

Poor 

Alfalfa  .     . 

20 

Mar.  20 

June  1-15 

72 

36 

J 

Before  blooming 

Fair 

Red  clover 

15 

June  15-25 

36 

J 

In  bloom 

Fair 

Peas      and 

fP  60 

io  48 
fP  60 
\0  48 

April  16 

June  25-July  5 

70 

32 

J 

In  milk 

Average 

Peas      and 

April  26 

July  5-15 

70 

32 

h 

In  milk 

Average 

Oats      ,     . 

80 

May  5 

July  15-25 

70 

32 

s 

In  milk 

.\verage 

Alfalfa  (sec- 

ond crop.) 

— 

— 

Julvl5-30 

— 

36 

— 

Before  blooming 

.Vverage 

Rape     .     . 

2.5 

May  26 

A UK.  1-15 

67 

42 

i 

Mature 

Good 

Flint  corn  . 

— 

May  20 

Aug.  15-25 

86 

40 

i 

In  silk 

Very  good 

Sorghum    . 

50 

June  1 

Aug.  25-Sept.  10 

86 

39 

A 

When  well  headed 

Very  good 

EverRreen 

sweet  corn 

— 

May  31 

Sept.  10-25 

102 

30 

A 

In  silk 

\'erv  good 

Rnne     .     . 

2.5 

July  20 

Sept.  2.5-Oct.  10 

67 

42 

4 

Mature 

Good 

Remarks.  —  Feed  in  stable  during  day  and  turn  cowa  on  pasture  at  night,  or  feed  carefully 
in  the  pasture,  spreading  the  forage.  After  cutting  rye,  use  same  ground  for  the  rape,  flint 
corn,  and  sorghum,  and  after  rutting  pea.san<l  oats,  use  same  ground  for  evergreen  sweet  corn 
anrl  rape.  .After  oats,  sow  peas  an<l  barley.  In  this  way  a  single  acre  only  is  required 
(except  alfalfa,  which  is  permanent),  and  the  forage  produced  is  ample  succulent  feed  for 
ten  cows  for  nearly  half  the  year. 


SOILING    CROPS 


1ST 


Mississippi.  —  "  One  of  the  best,  surest  and  safest  crops  for  soiling 
is  sorghum,  planted  thick,  and  with  the  rows  not  over  two  feet  apart. 
The  sorghum  may  follow  a  crop  of  oats  or  some  other  early  crop,  and 
will  withstand  dry  weather  better  than  most  other  plants.  Cow- 
peas  are  good,  and  corn  may  be  used  satisfactorily  on  land  that  will 
produce  fair  to  large  yields."     (Moore.) 

Kansas.  —  Dates  when  soiling  crops  are  available :  Alfalfa,  May 
20  to  September  30;  wheat,  June  1  to  June  15;  oats,  June  15  to  June 
30 ;  sweet  corn,  July  15  to  July  31 ;  field  corn,  August  1  to  September 
15;  sorghum,  August  1  to  September  30;  kafir,  August  1  to  Sep- 
tember 30;   wheat  and  rye  pasture,  until  the  ground  freezes.     (Otis.) 

Dates  for  planting  and  using  soiling  crops  in  western  Oregon  and  western 
Washington  (Hunter) 


Crops 

When  Planted 

When  Used 

Rve  and  vetch    .     .     . 

September  1-15 

April  1-May  15 

Winter  oats  and  vetch 

September  and  October 

May  15-July  1 

Winter  wheat  and  vetch 

September  and  October 

May  15-July  1 

May  15-July  1 

Alfalfa 

During  June 

Oats  and  peas 

February- 

During  June 

Oats  and  vetch    .     .     . 

February 

June  15-July  15 

Oats  and  peas 

April 

During  July 

Rape 

May  1 

During  July 

Oats  and  peas 

May 

During  August 

Rape 

June 

During  August 

Corn 

May  10-20 

During   August,    Septem- 
ber, and  October. 

Turnips 

July  1 

Late  fall  and  early  winter 

Thousand-headed  kale  . 

March  15  and  trans.  June  1 

October  15- April  1 

Mangels,     carrots    and 

April 

Oct.  15- April  1  (fed  from 

rutabagas     .... 

bins,  pits,  or  root-houses). 

Rotation  used  successfully  by  practical  dairymen  in  the  middle  latitudes 

(40°  N.) 


Crop 


Rye  and  vetches  . 
Wheat  and  vetches  . 
Red  and  alsike  clover 
Oats  and  Canada  peas 
Very  early  sweet  corn 
Late  sweet  corn  .  . 
Sorghum  and  cowpeas 


Seeding  Time 


September 

September 

April  or  August 

April 

May 

May  and  June 

June 


Seed  per  Acre 


2  bu.  rye,  2  bu.  vetch 
2  bu.  rye,  5  bu.  vetch 
25  to  30  lb. 
2  bu.  oats,  2  bu.  peas 
8  qt. 
6  qt. 

10  qt.  sorghum,  50  qt. 
peas 


In  Prime  Feeding 
Condition 


April  25  to  May  10 
May  10  to  June  1 
June  1  to  June  25 
June  25  to  Julv  10 
July  10  to  July  25 
July  25  to  Aug.  25 
Aug.  25  to  frost 


138  CROPS   FOR   SPECIAL   FARM  PRACTICES 

Cover-Crops 

A  cover-crop  is  one  that  is  grown  for  its  effect  as  green-manure  or 
protection,  or  otherwise,  rather  than  for  its  value  as  a  product  of  itself. 
Cover-crops  are  used 

1.  To  prevent  the  loss  of  soluble  plant-food,  which  occurs  when  the 
lands  are  left  uncovered  during  the  late  fall  and  winter ; 

2.  To  prevent  the  galling  or  surface  erosion  of  hillsides  or  slopes 
by  winter  rains; 

3.  To  prevent  root  injury  by  excessive  freezing  of  orchard  lands; 

4.  To  supply  humus; 

5.  To  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  land. 

Legumes  used  as  cover-crops:  red  clover  and  Canada  field-peas, 
widely  useful  in  the  northern  tier  of  states ;  alfalfa  in  the  western  states 
and  California;  soybeans,  cowpeas,  and  crimson  clover  in  the  central 
and  southern  states ;  velvet  bean  and  beggarweed,  especially  useful  only 
in  the  South ;  hairy  vetch  and  spring  vetch,  most  successfully  used  in 
the  South,  though  rather  generally  grown  in  the  northern  states ;  sweet 
clover  and,  for  peculiar  conditions,  serradella. 

Xon-legumes  used  as  cover-crops :  rye,  wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  of 
the  cereals,  are  more  commonly  used ;  rape  and  turnips,  which  are  not 
hardy  in  the  northern  sections ;  buckwheat,  white  mustard,  and  spurry 
under  special  conditions. 

Some  of  the  leading  cover-crops  mentioned  or  recommended  for 
fruit  plantations  (the  leguminous  or  nitrogen -gathering  species  being 
starred) :  — 

Living  over  winter:  — 

*  Clovers. 

*  Hairy  or  winter  vetch  (Vicia  villosa). 

*  Sweet  clover  (little  used). 
Winter  rye. 

Winter  wheat. 

Killed  by  freezing :  — 

*  Cowpea. 

*  Soybean. 

*  Velvet  bean. 
*Pea. 


COVER-CROPS  139 

*  Bean. 

*  Beggarweed.  [1  qt.  of  spring  or  winter 

*  Spring  vetch  (Vicia  sativa).  |      vetch    (seed)    weighs 
Rape.  I      If  lb. 

Turnip. 

Oats. 

Barley  (little  used). 

Buckwheat. 

Maize. 

Millet  (little  used). 

Average  quantities  of  seed  per  acre  for  heavy  cover-crops  in  fruit  plantations 

Barley 2-23^  bu. 

Beans        13^-2  bu. 

Beggarweed 5-8  lb. 

Buckwheat IH  bu. 

Clover,  red 10-15  lb. 

Clover,  mammoth 15-20  lb. 

Clover,  crimson 15-20  lb. 

Cowpea lH-2  bu. 

Maize 2-3  bu. 

Millet 1^  bu. 

Oats 2-3  bu. 

Pea 2-3  bu. 

Rape 2-5  lb. 

Rye lM-2bu. 

Soybean 2-4  pk. 

Sweet  clover 10-12  lb. 

Turnip 4  lb. 

Velvet  bean 1-4  pk. 

Vetch 20  1b.  tolHbu. 

Wheat 2-2H  bu. 

Alfalfa  (20  to  24  lb.  to  the  acre)  is  sometimes  used  as  a  cover-crop 
in  orchards,  being  plowed  a  year  from  sowing  or  allowed  to  remain  for 
a  longer  period.  Various  combinations  or  mixtures  are  also  used :  as 
mammoth  clover,  6  lb.,  alfalfa,  10  lb.,  turnip,  2  to  3  oz. ;  alfalfa,  6  lb., 
crimson  clover,  6  lb.,  alsike  clover,  3  lb.,  strap-leaf  turnip,  2  to  3  oz., 
all  sown  in  midsummer.  Cowpeas  in  drills  and  cultivated,  and  rye, 
rape,  or  turnips  added  at  the  last  cultivation.  Winter  vetch,  1  bu., 
rye,  |  bu.     Cowpea,  1|  bu. ;  red  clover,  6  lb.     Oats,  2  bu. ;  peas,  2  bu. 

Catch-Crops 

Catch-crops  are  those  crops  that  occupy  the  ground  for  short  inter- 
vals between  the  growing  of  other  crops,  in  order  to  secure  more  prod- 
ucts within  a  given  time. 


140 


CROPS   FOR   SPECIAL   FARM  PRACTICES 


Nitrogen-consuming  catch-crops :  rye,  wheat,  buckwheat,  turnips, 
dwarf  Essex  rape. 

Nitrogen-gathering  catch-crops:  red  clover,  15  lb.  per  acre;  mam- 
moth clover,  15  lb. ;  alsike  clover,  5  lb.  with  5  lb.  red  clover ;  crimson 
clover,  12-15  lb.;  alfalfa,  25-35  lb.  broadcast  or  15-25  lb.  drilled; 
Canada  field-pea,  ^-2  bu. ;  cowpea,  l-H  bu.,  broadcast;  soybean,  1-1^ 
bu.  broadcast,  or  2-3  pk.  drilled ;  velvet  bean,  1  bu. ;  sand  or  winter 
vetch,  H-2bu. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  contained  in  various  crops :  — 


Cowpeas 
Soybeans 
Crimson  clover     . 
Alsike  clover    . 
Red  clover  .     .     . 
Canada  field-peas 


Tons  peh 

ACRK 

Gkeen 


Nitrogen 
Lb. 


48 
GO 
60 
GO 
GO 
50 


Organic 

Matter 

Lb. 


1920 
2G40 
21  GO 
2G40 
2400 
2200 


Nurse-Crops 

Plants  used  to  aid,  shield,  or  shade  other  plants,  until  the  other  plants 
become  established,  are  nurse-plants.  Grain  is  a  nurse-crop  when  it 
is  used  as  an  aid  to  seeding  to  grass.  Nurse-cropping  is  practiced  in 
forestry,  also. 

Field  Root-Crops  (Minns) 

Seeds  of  the  mangel  may  be  sown  in  central  New  York  from  May 
1  to  June  1,  with  expectation  of  a  good  crop.  Late  frosts  do  not  en- 
danger the  young  plants;  and  if  the  ground  is  in  gao:l  condition  the 
earlier  they  are  sown  in  the  month  of  May,  the  longer  the  growing 
season  will  be.  They  are  not  seriously  affected  by  dry  weather  if 
given  good  tillage.  They  are  mature  enough  to  harvest  by  October  1, 
and  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  until  November  1  with 
safety.  Hard  freezing  weather  damages  the  part  of  the  root  that 
stands  above  ground,  and  therefore  it  is  safe  to  have  them  harvested 
before   November. 

Seeds  of  carrots  are  slow  to  germinate,  and  must  be  planted  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground.     It  is  essential  to  have  the  best  of  soil  and  weather 


ROOT-CROPS  141 

conditions  for  them.  From  May  20  to  June  20  inclusive  would  be 
the  proper  time  for  sowing  carrots  in  this  latitude.  They  do  not  make 
much  growth  until  the  heat  of  summer  is  past.  The  seedlings  are 
very  feeble,  and  require  much  hand  tillage;  but  after  harvest  time 
is  over,  and  especially  after  August  and  September  rains,  carrots  make 
vigorous  growth  until  late  in  the  autumn.  As  the  root  grows  mainly 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  they  need  not  be  harvested  as  early 
as  mangels.  They  may  remain  out  of  doors,  and  will  continue  to  in- 
crease somewhat  in  size  until  the  ground  begins  to  freeze.  It  is  better  to 
harvest  them  before  bad  weather  sets  in. 

Rutabagas  do  not  require  as  long  a  season  in  which  to  mature  as  do 
carrots  or  mangels.  They  are  also  sensitive  to  drought  during  mid- 
summer. In  order  to  have  them  mature  at  a  time  in  the  autumn  when 
they  are  wanted  for  feed  or  to  store  away  for  winter  use,  it  is  best  to 
plant  the  seed  from  June  1  to  20  inclusive.  The  seed  germinates 
readily,  and  the  plants  soon  become  large  enough  to  till  easily.  From 
seed  sown  in  June,  the  crop  will  usually  mature  by  October  1, 
which  is  early  enough  for  stock-feeding  purposes.  They  may  be  left  out 
of  doors  until  cold  weather  comes,  in  November. 

White  turnips  of  different  sorts  will  mature  in  a  comparatively  short 
time.  They  also  are  sensitive  to  summer  drought,  and  therefore  it  is 
best  to  sow  the  seed  fom  July  20  to  30  inclusive.  Even  then  their  suc- 
cess is  dependent  very  largely  on  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil 
at  the  time  of  sowing  and  during  the  month  that  follows.  If  conditions 
are  favorable,  they  will  mature  by  November  1,  and  as  they  are  not 
easily  damaged  by  frost,  they  can  be  allowed  to  remain  out  of  doors  until 
freezing  weather  sets  in. 

White  turnips  are  frequently  sown  as  a  catch-crop  after  a  crop  of 
early  potatoes  has  been  removed,  or  at  the  last  cultivation  of  a  field  of 
corn  which  has  been  planted  early.  Sown  in  this  way,  the  cost  of  grow- 
ing them  is  low  and  consistent  with  their  value  for  feeding  purposes. 

Of  the  four  types  of  root-crops  named,  the  mangels  are  the  most 
reliable  in  this  locality,  and  the  carrots  the  most  expensive  to  grow. 

Methods  of  Keeping  and  Storing  Fruits  and  Vegetables 

Apples. 

1.  Keep  the  fruit  as  cool  as  possible  without  freezing.  Choose 
only  normal  fruit,  and  place  it  upon  trays  in  a  moist  but  well-ventilated 


142  CROPS  FOR   SPECIAL   FARM  PRACTICES 

cellar.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  fruit  particularly  nice,  allow  no 
fruits  to  touch  each  other  upon  the  trays,  and  the  individual  fruits  may 
be  wrapped  in  tissue  paper.  For  market  purposes,  pack  tightly  in  barrels 
after  the  apples  have  shrunk,  and  store  the  barrels  in  a  very  cool  place. 

2.  Some  solid  apples,  as  Spitzenburgh  and  Newtown,  are  not 
injured  by  hard  freezing,  if  they  are  allowed  to  remain  frozen  until 
wanted  and  are  then  thawed  out  very  gradually. 

3.  Many  apples,  particularly  russets  and  other  firm  varieties, 
keep  well  when  buried  after  the  manner  of  pitting  potatoes.  Some- 
times, however,  they  taste  of  the  earth.  This  may  be  prevented  by 
setting  a  ridge-pole  over  the  pile  of  apples  in  forked  sticks,  and 
making  a  roof  of  boards  in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  an  air 
space  over  the  fruit.  Then  cover  the  boards  with  straw  and  earth. 
Apples  seldom  keep  well  after  removal  from  a  pit  in  spring. 

4.  Apples  may  be  kept  by  burying  in  chaff.  Spread  chaff  —  buck- 
wheat-chaff is  good  —  on  the  barn  floor,  pile  on  the  apples  and  cover 
them  with  chaff  and  fine  broken  or  chopped  straw  2  feet  thick,  exercising 
care  to  fill  the  interstices.      They  may  be  covered  in  leaves  or  moss. 

Cabbage. 

The  most  satisfactory  method  of  keeping  cabbages  is  to  bury  them 
in  the  field.  Choose  a  dry  place,  pull  the  cabbages,  and  stand  them 
head  down  on  the  earth.  Cover  them  with  soil  to  the  depth  of  6  or 
10  inches,  covering  very  lightly  at  first  to  prevent  heating  —  unless  the 
weather  should  quickly  become  severe  —  and  as  winter  sets  in,  cover 
with  a  good  dressing  of  straw  or  coarse  manure.  The  cabbages  should 
be  allowed  to  stand  where  they  grew  until  cold  weather  approaches. 
The  storing  beds  are  usually  made  about  6  or  8  feet  wide,  so  that  the 
middle  of  the  bed  can  be  reached  from  either  side,  and  to  prevent  heat- 
ing if  the  weather  should  remain  open.  Cabbages  quickly  decay  in  the 
warm  weather  of  spring. 

Cabbage  for  family  use  is  most  conveniently  kept  in  a  barrel  or  box 
half  buried  in  the  garden.  Cabbages  and  turnips  should  never  be 
kept  in  the  house  cellar,  as  when  decaying  they  become  very  offensive. 

Celery. 

For  market  purposes,  celery  is  stored  in  temporary  board  pits,  in 
sheds,  in  cellars,  and  in  various  kinds  of  earth  pits  and  trenches.     The 


STORING   CELERY— GLACE  FRUIT  143 

points  to  be  considered  are,  to  provide  the  plants  with  moisture  to 
prevent  wilting,  to  prevent  hard  freezing,  and  to  give  some  ventilation. 
The  plants  are  set  loosely  in  the  soil.  There  are  several  methods  of 
keeping  celery  in  an  ordinary  cellar  for  home  use.  The  following 
methods  are  good  :  — 

Secure  a  shoe  or  similar  box.  Bore  one-inch  holes  in  the  sides, 
four  inches  from  bottom.  Put  a  layer  of  sand  or  soil  in  the  box,  and 
stand  the  plants,  trimmed  carefully,  upon  it,  closely  together,  working 
more  sand  or  soil  about  the  root  part,  and  continuing  until  the  box 
is  full.  The  soil  should  be  watered  as  often  as  needed,  but  always 
through  the  holes  in  the  side  of  the  box.     Keep  the  foliage  dry. 

Celery  may  also  be  stored  and  well  blanched  at  the  same  time,  in 
a  similar  way,  by  standing  it  in  a  barrel  upon  a  layer  of  soil.  Some 
roots  and  soil  may  be  left  adhering  to  the  plants.  Crowd  closely, 
water  through  holes  near  the  bottom,  as  in  case  of  box  storage,  and  keep 
the  plants  in  the  dark. 

Blanched  celery  can  also  be  preserved  for  a  long  time  by  trimming 
closely  and  packing  upright  in  moss  inside  of  a  box.  A  large  quantity 
of  the  vegetable  maj^  thus  be  stored  in  a  small  space. 

Crystallized  or  glace  fruit. 

The  principle  is  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  fruit  and  replace  it 
with  sugar  syrup,  which  hardens  and  preserves  the  fruit  in  its  natural 
shape.  The  fruit  should  be  all  of  one  size  and  of  a  uniform  degree 
of  ripeness,  such  as  is  best  for  canning.  Peaches,  pears,  and  similar 
fruits  are  pared  and  cut  in  halves;  plums,  cherries,  etc.,  are  pitted. 
After  being  properly  prepared,  the  fruit  is  put  in  a  basket  or  bucket 
with  a  perforated  bottom  and  immersed  in  boiling  water  to  dilute  and 
extract  the  juice.  This  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  process,  and 
requires  great  skill.  If  the  fruit  be  left  too  long,  it  is  over-cooked 
and  becomes  soft ;  if  not  long  enough,  the  juice  is  not  sufficiently 
extracted,  and  this  prevents  perfect  absorption  of  the  sugar.  After 
the  fruit  cools,  it  may  again  be  assorted  as  to  softness.  The  syrup 
is  made  of  white  sugar  and  water.  The  softer  the  fruit,  the  heavier 
the  syrup  required.  The  fruit  is  placed  in  earthen  pans,  covered  with 
syrup,  and  left  about  a  week.  This  is  a  critical  stage,  as  fermentation 
will  soon  take  place ;  and  when  this  has  reached  a  certain  stage,  the  fruit 
and  syrup  are  heated  to  the  boiling-point,  which  checks  the  fermenta- 


144  CROPS   FOR   SPECIAL   FARM  PRACTICES 

tion.  This  is  ropoatod,  as  often  as  may  l)e  necessary,  for  about  six 
weeks.  The  fruit  is  taken  out  of  the  s^Tup,  washed  in  clean  water,  and 
either  glaced  or  crystalHzed,  as  desired.  It  is  dipped  in  thick  syrup, 
and  hardened  quickly  in  the  open  air  for  glaceing,  or  left  to  be  hardened 
slowly  if  to  be  crystallized.  The  fruit  is  now  ready  for  packing,  and 
will  keep  in  any  climate. 


After  the  figs  are  gathered  and  dried  in  the  same  way  as  peaches  or 
apricots,  wash  to  remove  all  grit,  and  spread  in  shallow  pans,  and  set 
them  in  the  oven  to  become  thoroughly  heated,  taking  care  to  prevent 
scorching.  Then  roll  in  powdered  sugar,  which  has  been  rolled  to 
remove  all  lumps.  When  cold,  pack  away,  preferably  in  paper  bags. 
They  make  a  delicious  lunch  with  a  bowl  of  milk.  They  are  also  ex- 
cellent for  the  dessert. 

Gooseberries  keep  well  if  kept  tight  in  common  bottles  filled  with  pure 
water.  Be  sure  that  none  but  perfect  berries  are  admitted,  and  keep 
in  a  cool  place.  The  berries  should  be  picked  before  the\^  are  ripe, 
or  edible  from  the  hand,  —  in  the  stage  at  which  they  are  used  for 
culinary  purposes. 

Grapes. 

1.  The  firm  grapes  usually  keep  best  —  as  Catawba,  Vergennes, 
Niagara,  Diana,  Jefferson,  etc.  Thickness  of  skin  does  not  appear 
to  be  correlated  with  good  keeping  qualities.  Always  cut  the  bunches 
which  are  to  be  stored  on  a  dry  day,  when  the  berries  are  ripe,  and  care- 
fully remove  all  soft,  bruised,  and  imperfect  fruits  and  all  leav^es.  Keep 
the  fruit  dry,  cool,  and  away  from  currents  of  air.  Many  varieties 
keep  well  if  simply  placed  in  shallow  boxes  or  baskets  and  kept  undis- 
turbed in  a  cool,  rather  moist  place. 

2.  Pack  the  bunches  in  layers  of  dry,  clean  sand. 

3.  Pack  in  layers  of  some  small  grain,  as  wheat,  or  oats,  or  barley. 

4.  Cork-dust  is  also  excellent  for  use  in  packing  grapes.  This  cork 
can  be  had  from  grocers  who  handle  the  white  Malagas,  which  are 
packed  in  this  material. 

5.  Pack  the  bunches  in  finely  cut,  soft,  and  dry  hay,  placing  the 
grapes  and  hay  in  consecutive  layers. 

6.  Dry  hardwood  sawdust  is  also  good  for  packing. 


KEEPING    GRAPES  145 

7.  Place  on  shelves  in  a  cool,  airy  room.  After  a  few  days  wrap 
the  bunches  separately  in  soft  paper,  and  pack  in  shallow  pasteboard 
boxes,  not  more  than  two  or  three  layers  deep.  Keep  in  a  cool,  dry 
room  that  is  free  from  frost. 

8.  Cut  the  bunches  with  sharp  scissors,  place  in  shallow  baskets, 
but  few  in  a  basket,  and  after  reaching  the  house  dip  the  cut  end  of 
stems  in  melted  wax.  Now  take  tissue  paper  or  very  thin  manila 
paper  cut  just  to  the  right  size,  and  carefully  wrap  each  cluster  of 
grapes.  Secure  shallow  tin  boxes;  place  a  layer  of  cotton-batting 
at  the  bottom,  then  a  layer  of  grapes,  then  batting;  three  layers  of 
grapes  are  enough  for  one  box,  alternating  with  cotton-batting,  and 
topping  with  batting ;  then  gently  secure  the  lid  to  each  box,  and  when 
done  place  in  cold  storage  for  use  in  April,  or  even  later.  If  cold  storage 
cannot  be  had,  put  in  a  dry,  cool  room,  and  when  cold  weather  ap- 
proaches, cover  in  an  interior  closet  with  just  sufficient  covering  to 
prevent  freezing;   warmth  will  cause  over-ripening  and  deterioration. 

9.  Roe's  method.  —  In  a  stone  jar  place  alternate  layers  of  grapes 
and  straw  paper,  the  paper  being  in  double  thickness.  Over  the  jar 
place  a  cloth,  and  bury  below  frost  in  a  dry  soil.  The  grapes  will  keep 
until  New  Year's. 

Keeping  grapes  for  market  (W.  M.  Pattison,  Quebec). 

It  is  the  generally  received  opinion  that  the  thick-skinned  native 
seedlings  are  the  only  keepers.  This  is  correct  as  regards  preserving 
flavor,  but  several  hybrids  of  foreign  blood  are  the  best  keepers  known. 
Before  giving  results  of  this  and  former  trials,  instructions  in  packing 
may  be  of  service.  The  varieties  intended  to  be  laid  up  for  winter  use 
should  be  those  alone  which  adhere  well  to  the  stem  and  are  not  inclined 
to  shrivel.  These  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vines  as  long  as 
they  are  safe  from  frost.  A  clear,  dry  day  is  necessary  for  picking, 
and  careful  handling  and  shallow  baskets  are  important.  The  room 
selected  for  the  drying  process  should  be  well  ventilated,  and  the  fruit 
laid  out  in  single  layers  on  tables  or  in  baskets  where  the  air  circulates 
freely,  the  windows  being  closed  at  night  and  in  damp  weather.  In 
about  ten  days  the  stems  will  be  dried  out  sufficiently  to  prevent  mold- 
ing when  laid  away.  When  danger  from  this  is  over,  and  the  stems 
resemble  those  of  raisins,  the  time  for  packing  has  arrived.  In  this, 
the  point  to  be  observed  is  to  exclude  air  proportionately  with  their 


146 


CROPS  FOR  SPECIAL    FAR}f  PRACTICES 


tomlency  to  mold.  I  have  ustnl  ))iu5kcts  for  permanent  packing,  but 
much  prefer  sliullow  trays  or  boxes  of  uniform  size  to  ))e  packed  on 
each  other,  so  that  each  box  fonns  a  cover  for  the  lower,  the  upper- 
most only  ntHxlinj?  one.  Until  very  cold  weather,  the  boxes  can  be 
piled  8o  as  to  allow  the  remaining  moisture  to  escape  through  a  crevice 
about  the  width  of  a  knif('-l)lado.  Before  packing,  each  bunch  should 
be  exajnined,  aiui  all  injuriHl,  cracked,  and  rotten  berries  removed  with 
suitable  scissors.  If  two  layers  are  packed  in  a  box,  a  sheet  of  paper 
aliould  intervene.  The  boxes  must  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  room  or  pas- 
sage, at  an  even  temiH'rature.  If  the  thermometer  goes  much  below 
freezing-jK)int,  a  blanket  or  newspaper  can  be  thrown  over  them,  to 
be  removetl  in  mild  weather.  Looking  over  them  once  in  the  winter 
and  removing  defective  berries  will  suffice,  the  poorest  keepers  being 
placetl  accessibly.  Under  this  treatment  the  best  keepers  will  be  in 
gootl  cxlible  onier  as  late  as  Fel)ruary,  after  which  they  deteriorate. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  grapes  worth  noticing,  that  have  been  tested 
for  keeping :  — 


DsacmiPTiON 


Mi 

■3 


r  Nov.  1 


Dec. 


Jan.  1 


Feb.  1 


Jan.  15 


List  of  Grapes  to  be  Recommended 


Lady,  Antoinette,  Carlotta,  Belinda. 


Lady  Washincton,  Peter  Wylie,  Mason,  Worden,  Senasqua, 
Ronicll,  Kicketts  Xo.  546,  Concord,  Delaware. 


Duchess,  Essex,  Barry,  Rockland,  Favorite,  Aniinia,  Garber, 
Massaaoit,  Dempsey,  Burnet,  Undine,  Allen  Hybrid, 
Agawam,  Gen.  Pope,  Francis  Scott. 


Salem,  Vergennes,  Eldorado. 


Wilder,  Herbert,  Peabody,   Rogers  No.  30,  Gaertner,  Mary, 
and  Owosso. 


Onions  demand  a  dry  cellar,  and  the  bulbs  should  be  thoroughly 
dried  in  the  sun  before  they  are  stored.  All  tops  should  be  cut  away 
when  the  onions  are  harvested.  If  a  cellar  cannot  be  had,  the  bulbs 
may  \h'  all()we<l  to  freeze,  but  great  care  must  be  exercised  or  the  whole 
crop  will  Ih>  l(wt.  The;  onions  mu.st  not  be  subjected  to  extremes 
of  lein|x'niture,  and  they  should  not  thaw  out  during  the  winter. 
They  can  be  »tor»J  on  the  north  side  of  a  loft,  being  covered  with  two 


KEEPING   FRUITS   AND    VEGETABLES  147 

or  three  feet  of  straw,  hay,  or  chaff  to  preserve  an  equable  temperature. 
They  must  not  be  handled  while  frozen,  and  they  must  thaw  out  very 
gradually  in  the  spring.  This  method  of  keeping  onions  is  reliable 
only  when  the  weather  is  cold  and  tolerably  uniform,  and  it  is  little 
employed. 

Orange. 

Aside  from  the  customary  wrapping  of  oranges  in  tissue  paper  and 
packing  them  in  boxes,  burying  in  dry  sand  is  sometimes  practiced. 
The  fruit  is  first  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  and  it  should  be  buried  in 
such  manner  that  the  fruit  shall  not  be  more  than  three  tiers  deep. 

Pears. 

Pears  should  be  picked  several  days  or  even  two  weeks  before  they 
are  ripe,  and  then  placed  in  a  dry  and  well-ventilated  room,  as  a 
chamber.  Make  very  shallow  piles,  or,  better,  place  on  trays.  They 
will  then  ripen  up  well.  The  fruits  are  picked  when  full  grown  but 
not  ripe,  and  when  the  stem  separates  readily  from  the  fruit-spur  if 
the  pear  is  lifted  up.  All  pears  are  better  for  being  prematurely  picked 
in  this  way.  Winter  pears  are  stored  in  the  same  manner  as  winter 
apples. 

Quinces  are  kept  in  the  same  way  as  winter  apples  and  winter  pears. 
Some  varieties,  particularly  the  Champion,  may  be  kept  until  after 
New  Year's  in  a  good  cellar. 

Roots  of  all  sorts,  as  beets,  carrots,  salsify,  parsnips,  can  be  kept  from 
wilting  by  packing  them  in  damp  sphagnum  moss,  like  that  used  by 
nurserymen.  They  may  also  be  packed  in  sand.  It  is  an  erroneous 
notion  that  parsnips  and  salsify  are  not  good  until  after  they  are  frozen. 

Squashes  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  room  in  which  the  temperature 
is  uniform  and  about  50°.  Growers  for  market  usually  build  squash 
houses  or  rooms  and  heat  them.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
bruise  any  squashes  which  are  to  be  stored.  Squashes  procured  from 
the  market  have  usually  been  too  roughly  handled  to  be  reliable  for 
storing. 


148  CROPS   FOR  SPECIAL   FARM  PRACTICES 

Sweet-potato. 

In  I  ho  North.  —  Dig  the  potatoes  on  a  sunny  day,  and  allow  them  to 
dry  th()r(»u«hly  in  the  field.  Sort  out  the  poor  ones,  and  handle  the 
reinaindiT  fart'fully.  Never  allow  them  to  become  chilled.  Then 
pack  them  in  barrels  in  layers,  in  dry  sand,  and  store  in  a  warm  cellar. 
They  are  sometimes  stored  in  finely  broken  charcoal  and  wheat-chaff. 

Sometimes  they  are  kept  in  small  and  open  crates,  without  packing- 
material,  the  crates  being  stacked  so  as  to  allow  thorough  ventilation. 
The  I  layman  or  Southern  Queen  keep  well  in  this  way. 

A  wann  attic  is  often  a  good  place  in  which  to  store  sweet-potatoes. 
A  tight,  warm  room  over  a  kitchen  is  particularly  good. 

In  the  South  (Berckmans).  —  Digging  the  tubers  should  be  delayed 
until  the  vines  have  been  sufficiently  touched  by  frost  to  check  vegeta- 
tion. Allow  the  potatoes  to  dry  off  in  the  field,  which  will  take  but  a 
few  hours.  Then  sort  all  those  of  eating  size  to  be  banked  separately 
from  the  smaller  ones.  The  banks  are  prepared  as  follows :  Make  a 
circular  bed  six  feet  in  diameter,  in  a  sheltered  corner  of  the  garden, 
throwing  up  the  earth  about  a  foot  high.  Cover  this  with  straw  and 
bank  up  the  tubers  in  shape  of  a  cone,  using  from  10  to  20  bushels  to  each 
i>ank.  A  triangular  pipe  made  of  narrow  planks  to  act  as  a  ventilator 
8h(»uld  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  cone.  Cover  the  tubers  with 
straw  6  to  10  inches  thick,  and  bank  the  latter  with  earth,  first  using 
only  a  small  quantity,  but  increasing  the  thickness  a  week  or  ten  days 
afterwards.  A  board  should  be  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  ventilating 
I)ipe  to  prevent  water  from  reaching  the  tubers.  Several  banks  are 
u.sually  made  in  a  row,  and  a  rough  shelter  of  boards  built  over  the 
whole.  The  main  j)oint  to  be  considered  in  putting  up  sweet  potatoes 
for  winter  is  entire  freedom  from  moisture  and  sufficient  covering  to 
prevent  heating.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  allow  the  tubers  tp  under- 
go sweating  (which  invariably  occurs  after  being  put  in  heaps)  before 
covering  them  too  nmch  ;  and  if  the  temporary  covering  is  removed  for 
a  few  hours,  a  week  after  being  heaped,  the  moisture  generated  will  be 
romovofi  and  very  little  difficulty  will  follow  from  thal^  cause.  If 
rovoretl  too  thickly  at  once,  the  sweating  often  endangers  rapid  fer- 
mentation, and  loss  is  then  certain  to  follow.  Sand  is  never  used  here 
in  banking  potatoes.  Some  varieties  of  potatoes  keep  much  better 
than  others.     The  Yellow  Sugar  yam  and  the  Pumpkin  yam  are  the 


TOMATOES  —  COLD   STORAGE 


149 


most  difficult  to  carry  through;  while  the  Trinidad  potato  keeps  as 
readily  as  Irish  potatoes,  only  requiring  to  be  kept  free  from  frost  and 
light  by  a  slight  covering  of  straw,  if  the  tubers  are  placed  in  a  house. 
Next  in  keeping  quality  come  Hayti  yam,  Red-skinned,  Brimstone, 
Nigger  Killer;    and  last  of  the  potato  section  is  the  Nansemond. 

Tomato. 

Pick  the  firmest  fruits  just  as  they  are  beginning  to  turn,  leaving  the 
stems  on,  exercising  care  not  to  bruise  them,  and  pack  in  a  barrel  or 
box  in  clean  and  thoroughly  dry  sand,  placing  the  fruits  so  that  they 
will  not  touch  each  other.     Place  the  barrel  in  a  dry  place. 

In  the  autumn  when  frosts  appear,  tomatoes,  if  carefully  picked  and 
laid  on  straw  under  the  glass  of  cold  frames,  will  continue  to  ripen  until 
near  Christmas.  Green  but  full-grown  tomatoes  may  be  gradually 
ripened  by  placing  them  in  cupboards  or  bureau  drawers. 

The  ripening  of  tomatoes  may  be  hastened  ten  days  by  bagging  them 
as  grapes  are  bagged. 

Cold  Storage 

Storing  under  refrigeration  is  mostly  a  business  by  itself,  and  is 
therefore  out  of  reach  of  a  general  book  of  rules.  However,  a  few 
figures  drawn  from  experience  may  be  useful  to  the  farmer :  — 

Temperature  for  fruits  and  vegetables  in  cold  storage  (Rochester  Cold 
Storage  Co.).    P.  345 


Goods 

Apples^      .     . 
Berries  .     .     . 
Canned  goods 
Celery  .     .     . 
Cherries     .     . 
Cranberries   . 
Dried  berries 
Dried  apples 
Dried  corn     . 
Dates    .     .     . 
Evaporated  app 
Figs  .... 
Grapes .     .     . 

les 

Temperature 


30-33° 

36° 

35° 

32°  with  care 

36° 

33° 

30-32° 

30° 

30° 

35° 

30° 


36° 


Goods 


Lemons  .  .  . 
Maple  Syrup 
Nuts  .... 
Oranges  .  .  . 
Pears  .... 
Peaches  or  plums 
Prunes  .... 
Quinces  .  .  . 
Raisins  .... 
Vegetables  .  . 
Wine  .... 
Watermelons 


Temperature 


36° 

35° 

35° 

36° 

32°  with  care 

35° 

35° 

30° 

35° 

35° 

40° 

35° 


1  Apples  are  often  carried  as  low  as  30°,  in  a  dry-air  circulating  room ;  the  heavier- 
skinned  apples  may  be  carried  as  low  as  29°.  With  pears  and  celery,  which  contain  mucn 
water,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  do  not  go  below  freezing. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Commercial  Grades  of  Crop  Products.     Fruit  Packages 

The  market  grades  or  classes  of  some  products  have  been  very  care- 
fully standardized.  This  is  particularly  true  of  grains,  hay,  and  straw, 
and  to  a  less  extent  of  fruit.  In  prepared  animal  products  there  has 
been  very  little  standardizing  by  societies  or  committees. 

Cotton  Grades 

No  printed  rules  have  been  formulated  for  the  official  grading  of 
cotton,  as  this  work  proceeds  upon  the  basis  of  a  set  of  types  of  actual 
cotton,  adopted  as  standard  on  the  recommendation  of  a  committee 
representing  the  entire  cotton  industry.  These  sets  of  cottons  are 
made  up  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  furnished 
to  all  applicants  at  the  cost  of  their  preparation.  The  samples  are  put 
up  in  specially  prepared  boxes. 

In  the  Cotton  Grades,  as  now  being  issued  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  several  new  ideas  have  been  embodied,  conspicuous  among 
which  is  the  protection  of  the  grades  by  photographs.  Each  of  the  nine 
grade  boxes  contains  twelve  samples  of  cotton,  separately  packed, 
representing  as  nearly  as  possible  the  range  of  diversity  in  the  grade 
represented.  The  boxes  are  twenty  inches  square;  inside  the  lid  of 
each  is  a  full-size  photograph  showing  the  appearance  of  the  cotton 
when  certified  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  As  each  particle  of 
tra.sh  and  each  material  unevenness  in  the  surface  of  the  cotton  is  shown 
in  the  photograph,  it  is  evident  that  any  material  change  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  cotton  itself  can  easily  be  detected  by  comparison  with  the 
photograph.  Of  course  these  photographs  make  no  pretension  to  show 
the  grade  of  the  cotton,  —  only  the  position  of  the  trash  and  fiber. 
The  .sc«al  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  signature  of  the 
Secretary,  together  with  a  seal-impress  certifying  the  grade  of  the 
cotton,  appear  on  the  photograph.     Experts  of  the  highest  class  have 

150 


HAY  AND    STRAW  151 

been  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  Official  Cotton  Grades,  and 
each  set  is  a  correct  copy  of  the  original  types  promulgated  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  on  the  recommendation  of  Committee. 

Grades  of  Hay  and  Straw  (Established  by  the  National  Hay  Associa- 
tion, Inc.) 
Haij. 

Choice  Timothy  Hay  —  Shall  be  timothy  not  mixed  with  over  one- 
twentieth  other  grasses,  properly  cured,  bright,  natural  color,  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Timothy  Hay  —  Shall  be  timothy  with  not  more  than  one- 
eighth  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  properly  cured,  good 
color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Timothy  Hay  —  Shall  be  timothy  not  good  enough  for  No.  1, 
not  over  one-fourth  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  fair  color, 
sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  3  Timothy  Hay  —  Shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough  for 
other  grades,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

Light  Clover  Mixed  Hay  —  Shall  be  timothy  mixed  with  clover. 
The  clover  mixture  not  over  one-fourth,  properly  cured,  sound,  good 
color,  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Clover  Mixed  Hay  —  Shall  be  timothy  and  clover  mixed,  with 
at  least  one-half  timothy,  good  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Mixed  Hay  —  Shall  be  timothy  and  clover  mixed  with 
at  least  one-third  timothy.     Reasonably  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Clover  Hay  —  Shall  be  medium  clover  not  over  one-twentieth 
other  grasses,  properly  cured,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Hay  —  Shall  be  clover,  sound,  well  baled,  not  good 
enough  for  No.  1. 

No  Grade  Hay  —  Shall  include  all  hay  badly  cured,  stained,  threshed, 
or  in  any  way  unsound. 

Choice  Prairie  Hay  —  Shall  be  upland  hay  of  bright,  natural  color, 
well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3  per  cent  weeds. 

No.  1  Prairie  Hay  —  Shall  be  upland  and  may  contain  one-quarter 
midland,  both  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain 
8  per  cent  weeds. 

No.  2  Prairie  Hay  —  Shall  be  upland,  of  fair  color,  and  may  contain 
one-half  midland,  both  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and 
may  contain  12J  per  cent  weeds. 


162  COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

No.  3  Pniirie  Hay  —  Shall  include  hay  not  good  enough  for  other 
grades  and  not  caked. 

No  1.  Midland  —  Shall  be  midland  hay  of  good  color,  well  cured, 
sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3  per  cent  weeds. 

No.  2  Midland  —  Shall  be  fair  color,  or  slough  hay  of  good  color, 
and  may  contain  12J  i)er  cent  weeds. 

Packing  Hay  —  Siiall  include  all  wild  hay  not  good  enough  for  other 
grades  and  not  caked. 

No  Grade  Prairie  Hay  —  Shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough  for 
other  grades. 

Alfalfa. 

Choice  Alfalfa  —  Shall  be  reasonably  fine,  leafy  alfalfa  of  bright 
green  color,  properly  cured,  sound,  sweet,  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Alfalfa  —  Shall  be  coarse  alfalfa  of  natural  color,  or  reasonably 
fine,  leafy  alfalfa  of  good  color,  and  may  contain  5  per  cent  of  foreign 
grasses ;  must  be  well  baled,  sound,  and  sweet. 

No.  2  Alfalfa  —  Shall  include  alfalfa  somewhat  bleached,  but  of  fair 
color,  reasonably  leafy,  not  more  than  one-eighth  foreign  grasses,  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

No.  3  Alfalfa  —  Shall  include  bleached  alfalfa,  or  alfalfa  mixed  with 
not  to  exceed  one-fourth  foreign  grasses,  but  when  mixed  must  be  of 
fair  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No  Grade  Alfalfa  —  Shall  include  all  alfalfa  not  good  enough  for 
other  grades,  caked,  musty,  greasy,  or  threshed. 

Straw. 

No.  1  Straight  Rye  Straw  —  Shall  be  in  large  bales,  clean,  bright, 
long  rye  straw,  pressed  in  bundles,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Straight  Rye  Straw  —  Shall  be  in  large  bales,  long  rye  straw, 
pressed  in  bundles,  sound,  and  well  baled,  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  1  Tangled  Rye  Straw  —  Shall  be  reasonably  clean  rye  straw, 
good  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Tangled  Rye  Straw  —  Shall  be  reasonably  clean ;  may  be 
some  staineil,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  1  Wheat  Straw  —  Shall  be  reasonably  clean  wheat  straw,  sound 
and  well  baled. 


HAY  AND   STRAW— GRA^N 


153 


No.  2  Wheat  Straw  —  Shall  be  reasonably  clean;  may  be  some 
stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  1  Oat  Straw  —  Shall  be  reasonably  clean  oat  straw,  sound  and 
well  baled. 

No.  2  Oat  Straw  —  Shall  be  reasonably  clean ;  may  be  some  stained, 
but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

The  above  grades  of  hay  and  straw  have  been  adopted  by  Exchanges 
in  the  following  markets  :  — 


Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Washington,  D.C 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
New  Orleans,  La. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Norfolk,  Va. 
Duluth,  Minn. 
Toledo,  O. 


Richmond,  Va. 
Buffalo,  N.Y. 
Saginaw,  Mich. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Savannah,  Ga. 
Columbus,  O. 
Baltimore,  Md.^ 
Cleveland,  O. 
Birmingham,  Ala. 
Cincinnati,  O.i 
^  Using  grades  in  part  only. 


St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Chicago,  111. 
Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Louisville,  Ky. 
State  of  Minnesota 
New  York  City 


Grades  of  Grain  (Adopted  by  the  Grain   Dealers'  National  Associa- 
tion, 1909) 
White  winter  wheat. 

No.  1  White  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure  soft 
white  winter  wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet,  and  clean,  and  weigh  not 
less  than  58  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  varieties  of  soft  white 
winter  wheat,  dry,  sound,  and  clean,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than 
8  per  cent  of  soft  red  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  56  lb.  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Winter  Wheat  — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  soft 
white  winter  wheat.  It  may  contain  5  per  cent  o^  damaged 
grains  other  than  skin-burnt  wheat,  and  may  contain  10  per  cent  of 
soft  red  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  53  lb.  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  4  White  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  the  varieties  of  soft 
white  winter  wheat,  not  fit  for  a  higher  grade,  in  consequence  of  being 
of  poor  quality,  damp,  musty,  or  dirty,  and  shall  not  contain  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  soft  red  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  lb. 
to  the  measured  bushel. 


1.54      COMMERCIAL    GRADES    OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

Red  mnter  wheat. 

No.  1  R«'<1  WiiitiT  Wheat  —  Shall  be  pure  soft  red  winter  wheat  of 
both  li^ht  and  dark  colors,  sound,  sweet,  plump,  and  well  cleaned,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  00  lb.  to  the  measured  l)ushel. 

No.  2  RihI  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  be  soft  red  winter  wheat  of  both 
llRht  and  dark  colors,  sound,  sweet,  and  clean,  shall  not  contain  more 
than  5  per  cent  of  white  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  .58  lb. 
to  the  measure<l  bushel. 

No.  3  H(m1  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  be  sound,  soft  red  winter  wheat,  not 
clean  or  plump  enough  for  No.  2,  shall  not  contain  more  than  8  per  cent 
of  white  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55  lb.  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  4  R(m1  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  be  soft  red  winter  wheat,  shall  con- 
tain not  more  than  <S  per  cent  of  white  winter  wheat.  It  may  be  damp, 
musty,  or  dirty,  but  must  be  cool,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  lb.  to 
the  mea.sured  bushel. 

Hard  winter  wheat. 

No.  1  Hard  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure,  hard 
winter  wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet,  and  well  cleaned,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  61  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Hard  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  lx)th  light  and  dark  colors,  dry,  sound,  sweet,  and  clean,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  50  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Hard  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  l>oth  light  and  dark  colors,  not  clean  or  plump  enough  for  No. 
2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Hard  Winter  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors.  It  may  be  damp,  musty,  or  dirty, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  50  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

\orthern  spring  wheat. 

No.  1  Hard  Spring  Wheat  —  Shall  be  sound,  bright,  sweet,  clean,  and 
consist  of  over  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  Scotch  Fife,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  58  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No  1  Northern  Spring  Wheat  — Must  be  northern-grown  spring  wheat, 


GRADES   OF   GRAIN  155 

3ound,  clean,  and  of  good  milling  quality,  and  must  contain  not  less  than 
50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
57  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Northern  Spring  Wheat  — ■  Shall  be  northern-grown  spring 
wheat,  not  clean  enough  or  sound  enough  for  No.  1,  and  must  contain 
not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  must 
weigh  not  less  than  56  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Northern  Spring  Wheat — Shall  be  composed  of  inferior  shrunken 
northern-grown  spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  54  lb.  to  the 
measured  bushel,  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat. 

No.  4  Northern  Spring  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  inferior  northern- 
grown  spring  wheat  that  is  badly  shrunken  or  damaged,  and  must  con- 
tain not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat, 
and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  49  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Spring  wheat. 

No.  1  Spring  Wheat  —  Shall  be  sound,  plump,  and  well  cleaned,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  59  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Spring  Wheat  —  Shall  be  sound,  clean,  of  a  good  milling 
quality,  and  weigh  not  less  than  57 J  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Spring  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  inferior,  shrunken,  or  dirty 
spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  53  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Spring  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  spring  wheat  damp,  musty, 
grown,  badly  bleached,  or  for  any  cause  unfit  for  No.  3,  and  weigh  not 
less  than  49  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

White  spring  wheat. 

White  Spring  Wheat  —  The  grades  of  Nos.  1, 2, 3,  and  4  White  Spring 
Wheat  shall  correspond  with  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  Spring 
Wheat,  except  that  they  shall  be  of  the  white  variety. 

Durum  (Macaroni)  wheat. 

No.  1  Durum  Wheat  —  Shall  be  bright,  sound,  dry,  well  cleaned,  and 
be  composed  of  durum,  commonly  known  as  macaroni  wheat,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  60  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Durum  Wheat  —  Shall  be  drv,  clean,  and  of  good  milling 


156  COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

quality.  It  shall  include  all  durum  wheat  that  for  any  reason  is  not 
suitable  for  Xo.  1  Durum,  and  weigh  not  less  than  58  lb.  to  the  measured 
buijhel. 

Xo.  3  Durum  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  durum  wheat  bleached, 
shrunken,  or  for  any  cause  unfit  for  Xo.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55 
lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  4  Durum  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  durum  wheat  that  is  badly 
bleached  or  for  any  cause  unfit  for  No.  3,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  lb. 
to  the  mea.sured  bushel. 

Velvet  chaff  wheat. 

X'o.  1  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat  —  Shall  be  bright,  sound,  and  well  cleaned, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  58  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  2  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat — Shall  be  sound,  dry,  clean,  maybe  slightly 
bleach<'d,  or  shrunken,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1,  and  weigh  not 
less  than  57  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  wheat  that  is  bleached, 
smutty  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit  for  No.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55 
lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  4  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  wheat  that  is  very 
smutty,  badly  bleached  and  grown,  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit  for 
Xo.  3. 

Pacific  Coast  wfieat. 

Xo.  1  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat  —  Shall  be  dry,  sound,  clean,  and  free 
from  .smut,  and  weigh  not  less  than  59  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  2  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat  —  Shall  be  dry,  sound,  clean,  and  only 
slightly  tainted  with  smut  and  alkali,  and  weigh  not  less  than  58  lb. 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  3  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat  —  Shall  include  all  other  Pacific  Coast 
red  wheat.  It  may  be  smutty  or  musty,  or  from  any  other  reason  unfit 
for  flouring  purpo.scs,  and  weigh  not  less  than  54  lb.  to  the  measured 
bu.shel. 

Pacific  Coa.st  white  wheat  shall  be  graded  according  to  the  rules  for 
Pacific  Coast  re<l  wheat.  In  case  of  a  mixture  of  Pacific  Coast 
wheat  with  our  home-grown  wheat,  red  or  white,  such  mixture  shall 
be  graded  "  Pacific  Coast  Mixed  Wheat." 


GRADES    OF   GRAIN  157 

The  grades  of  Pacific  white  and  Pacific  red  wheat  are  to  include 
all  such  wheats  as  are  grown  in  the  extreme  Northwest  and  on  the 
Pacific  slope  from  either  spring  or  winter  seeding. 

Mixed  wheat. 

Mixed  Wheat  —  In  case  of  an  appreciable  mixture  of  hard  and  soft 
wheat,  red  and  white  wheat  (except  as  provided  in  the  rule  of  red 
winter,  white  winter,  and  northern  spring  wheat),  durum,  and  spring 
wheat,  any  of  them  with  each  other,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to 
the  quality  thereof,  and  the  kind  of  wheat  predominating,  shall  be 
classed  as  No.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  Mixed  Wheat,  and  the  inspector  shall  make 
notation  describing  its  character. 

Rye. 

No.  1  Rye  —  Shall  be  dry,  sound,  plump,  sweet,  and  well  cleaned,  and 
shall  weigh  not  less  than  57  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Rye  —  Shall  be  dry,  sound,  and  contain  not  more  than  1  per 
cent  of  other  grain  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55  lb. 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Rye  —  Shall  include  inferior  rye  not  unsound,  but  from  any 
other  cause  not  good  enough  for  No.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  53  lb. 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Rye  —  May  be  damp,  musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
50  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

White  oats. 

No.  1  White  Oats  —  Shall  be  white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean, 
free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  32  lb.  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  2  White  Oats  —  Shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
contain  not  more  than  1  per  cent  of  dirt  and  1  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  29  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Standard  White  Oats  —  Shall  be  92  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  28  lb,  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Oats  —  Shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white,  shall  not  con- 
tain more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and  5  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and  weigh 
Tiot  less  than  24  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 


158     COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

No.  4  \Vhit«  Oats  — Shall  hv  90  per  cent  white,  may  be  damp, 
damaK(»fl,  imisty,  or  very  dirty. 

Notiee.  —  Yellow  oaU  shall  not  be  graded  better  than  No.  3  White 
Oats. 

Mixed  Oats. 

No.  1  Mixed  Oats  —  Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry,  sweet, 
sound,  bright,  elean.  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
32  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Mixed  Oats  —  Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  28  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Mixed  Oats  —  Shall  be  sweet  oats  of  various  colors,  shall  not 
contain  more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and  5  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and 
weigh  not  le.ss  than  24  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Mixed  Oats  —  Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  damp,  damaged, 
musty,  or  very  dirty. 

Red  or  rust-proof  oats. 

No.  1  Red  Oats  or  Rust-Proof  —  Shall  be  pure  red,  sound,  bright, 
sweet,  clean,  and  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  32  lb. 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Red  Oats  or  Rust-Proof  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  sweet, 
dry,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  dirt  or  foreign  matter, 
and  weigh  30  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Red  Oats  or  Rust-Proof  —  Shall  be  sweet,  seven-eighths  red, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  24  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Red  Oats  or  Rust-Proof  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  may  be 
damp,  musty,  or  very  dirty. 

White  clipped  oats. 

No  1  White  Cli|)ped  Oats  —  Shall  be  white,  clean,  dry,  sweet,  sound, 
bright,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  35  lb.  to  the 
moa.su rod  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Clipped  Oats.  —  Shall  be  <).")  p(>r  cent  white,  dry,  sweet, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  32  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 


GRADES   OF   GRAIN  159 

No.  3  White  Clipped  Oats  —  Shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  30  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  White  Clipped  Oats  — Shall  be  90  per  cent  white,  damp, 
damaged,  musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  30  lb.  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

Mixed  clipped  oats. 

No.  1  Mixed  Clipped  Oats  —  Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry, 
sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  35  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Mixed  Clipped  Oats  —  Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry, 
sweet,  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  32  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Mixed  Clipped  Oats.  —  Shall  be  sweet  oats  of  various  colors, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  30  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Mixed  Clipped  Oats  —  Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  damp, 
damaged,  musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  30  lb.  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

Note  —  Inspectors  are  authorized,  when  requested  by  shippers,  to 
give  weight  per  bushel  instead  of  grade  on  Clipped  White  Oats  and 
Clipped  Mixed  Oats  from  private  elevators. 

Purified  oats. 

Purified  Oats  —  All  oats  that  have  been  chemically  treated  or 
purified  shall  be  classed  as  Purified  Oats,  and  inspectors  shall  give  the 
test  weight  on  each  car  or  parcel  that  may  be  so  inspected. 

Corn. 

The  following  maximum  limits  shall  govern  all  inspection  and  grad- 
ing of  corn :  — 

Percentage  Percentage  cob  rotten.  Percentage 

Grade  of  Exclusive  of  bin  burnt  dirt  and 

Moisture  or  mahogany  corn  broken  grains 

1  15  1  1 

2  16  5  2 

3  19  10  4 

4  22  See  No.  4  Corn  rule,  all  colors. 


IGO  COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

Whik  corn. 

Xo.  1  White  Corn  —  Shall  be  99  per  cent  white,  sweet,  and  well 
matured. 

No.  2  White  Corn  —  Shall  be  98  per  cent  white,  and  sweet. 

No.  3  White  Corn  —  Shall  be  98  per  cent  white,  and  sweet. 

No.  4  White  Corn  —  Shall  be  98  per  cent  white ;  but  shall  include 
damp,  damaged,  or  musty  corn. 

Yellow  corn. 

No.  1  Yellow  Corn  —  Shall  be  99  per  cent  yellow,  sweet,  and  well 
matured. 

No.  2  Yellow  Corn  —  Shall  be  95  per  cent  yellow,  and  sweet. 

No.  3  Yellow  Corn  —  Shall  be  95  per  cent  yellow,  and  sweet. 

No.  4  Yellow  Corn  —  Shall  be  95  per  cent  yellow ;  but  shall  include 
damp,  damaged,  or  musty  corn. 

Mixed  com. 

No.  1  Mixed  Corn  —  Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors,  sweet  and  well 
matured. 

No.  2  Mixed  Corn  —  Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors,  and  sweet. 

No.  3  Mixed  Corn  —  Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors,  and  sweet. 

No.  4  Mixed  Corn  —  Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors;  but  shall  in- 
clude damp,  damaged,  or  musty  corn. 

Milo-maize. 

No.  1  Milo-Maize  —  Shall  be  mixed  milo-maize  of  choice  quality, 
Bound,  dry,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Milo-Maize  —  Shall  be  mixed  milo-maize,  sound,  dry,  and 
•  N'an. 

No.  3  Milo-Maize  —  Shall  be  mixed  milo-maize,  not  dry,  clean,  or 
sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Milo-Maize —  Shall  include  all  mixed  milo-maize  that  is 
Sadly  damaged,  damp,  musty  or  very  dirty. 

Milo-maize  that  is  wet  or  in  heating  condition  shall  not  be 
a?-aded. 


GRADES   OF   GRAIN  161 


Kaffir  corn} 


No.  1  White  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  pure  white  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  White  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  white,  sound,  dry, 
and  clean. 

No.  3  White  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  white,  not  dry, 
clean  or  sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  White  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  white  tliat  is  badly 
damaged,  damp,  musty,  or  very  dirty. 

No.  1  Red  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  pure  red  corn,  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Red  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  sound,  dry, 
and  clean. 

No.  3  Red  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  not  dry,  clean, 
or  sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Red  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  red  that  is  badly 
damaged,  damp,   musty,  or  very  dirty. 

No.  1  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  mixed  kaffir  corn  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  mixed  kaffir  corn,  sound,  dry,  and  clean. 

No.  3  Kaffir  Corn  —  Shall  be  mixed  kaffir  corn,  not  dry,  clean,  or 
sound  enough  for  No.  2, 

No.  4  Kaffir  Corn — Shall  include  all  mixed  kaffir  corn  that  is  badly 
damaged,  damp,  musty,  or  very  dirty. 

Kaffir  corn  that  is  wet  or  in  heating  condition  shall  not  be  graded. 

Barley  (Barley  Association  of  the  United  States). 

No.  1  Barley  —  Shall  be  sound,  plump,  bright,  clean,  and  free  from 
other  grain,  and  not  scoured  nor  clipped,  shall  weigh  not  less  than 
48  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Barley  — Shall  be  sound,  of  healthy  color  (bright  or  straw 
color),  reasonably  clean  and  reasonably  free  from  other  grains  and 
seeds,  and  not  scoured  nor  clipped,  shall  weigh  not  less  than  46  lb.  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

'  By  some  writers  now  spelled  kafir,  and  written  without  the  word  "corn." 
See  Cyclo.  Amer.  Agr.  ii.  384,  where  the  word  "maize"  is  also  dropped  from 
milo.     "  Kafir  "  is  used  in  this  book  by  preference. 


162  COMMf:RCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

Xo.  3  Barley  —  Shall  include  slightly  shrunken  or  otherwise  slightly 
damaged  barley,  not  gootl  enough  for  No.  2,  and  not  scoured  nor 
clipped,  shall  weigh  not  less  than  44  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  4  Barley  — Shall  include  barley  fit  for  malting  purposes,  not 
good  enough  for  Xo.  3. 

Xo.  1  Feed  Barley  —  Shall  test  not  less  than  40  lb.  to  the  measured 
bushel,  shall  be  cool  and  reasonably  free  from  other  grain  and  seeds, 
and  not  good  enough  for  Xo.  4,  and  may  include  barley  with  a  strong 
ground  smell,  or  a  slightly  musty  or  bin  smell. 

Rejected  Barley  —  Shall  include  all  barley  testing  under  40  lb.  to  the 
mea.suretl  bushel,  or  barley  which  is  badly  musty  or  badly  damaged, 
and  not  good  enough  to  grade  "  feed  "  barley,  except  that  barley  which 
has  been  chemically  treated  shall  not  be  graded  at  all. 

Bay  Brewing  Barley  —  The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  Bay  Brewing 
Barley  shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3 
Barley,  excei)t  that  they  shall  be  of  the  Bay  Brewing  variety,  grown  in 
the  far  West  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Chevalier  Barley — The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  Chevalier  Barley 
shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  Barley, 
except  that  they  shall  be  of  the  Chevalier  variety,  grown  in  the  far 
West  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Bay  Brewing  Mixed  Barley  —  In  case  of  admixture  of  Bay  Brewing 
barley  with  barley  of  other  varieties,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to  the 
quality  thereof,  and  classed  as  1-2-3  Bay  Brewing  Mixed  Barley. 

Chevalier  Mixed  Barley  —  In  case  of  admixture  of  Chevalier  barley 
with  barley  of  other  varieties,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to  the  quality 
thereof,  and  classed  as  1-2-3  Chevalier  Mixed  Barley. 

Winter  Barky. 

Xo  1  Winter  Barley  —  Shall  be  plump,  bright,  sound,  and  clean,  free 
from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  48  lb.  to  the  measured 
bu.shel. 

Xo.  2  Winter  Barley  —  Shall  be  sound,  plump,  may  be  stained,  shall 
contain  not  more  than  3  per  c:':it  of  foreign  matter,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  46  lb,  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Xo.  3  Winter  Barley  —  Shall  include  all  shrunken,  stained,  and 
dirty  barley,  shall  contain  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  foreign  matter, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  44  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 


SIZES   OF  FRUIT  PACKAGES 


163 


No.  4  Winter  Barley  —  Shall  include  all  barley  not  fit  for  a  higher 
grade  in  consequence  of  being  poor  quality,  damp,  musty,  or  dirty ;  shall 
contain  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  foreign  matter,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  40  lb.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Sample  grades  —  General  rule. 

All  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye  and  corn  that  is  in  a  heated  condition, 
souring,  or  too  damp  to  be  safe  for  warehousing,  or  that  is  badly 
bin-burnt,  fire-burnt,  fire-smoked,  or  badly  damaged,  mixed  with 
garlic,  onions,  or  containing  live  weevil,  exceedingly  dirty,  or  where 
different  kinds  of  grain  are  badly  mixed  with  one  another,  shall  be 
classed  as  Sample  Grade,  and  the  inspector  shall  make  notations  as 
to  quality  and  condition. 

Fruit  Packages 

Sizes  and  weights  of  packages  for  deciduous  fruits  (California  Fruit 

Distributors) 

Weights  in  first  table,  sizes  in  second 

Cherries 11      pounds  per  box 

Peaches 21 1/^  pounds  per  box 

Pears 50      pounds  per  box 

Pears  for  export  to  Europe 24      pounds  per  box 

Prunes 26  pounds  per    single  crate 

Apricots 26  pounds  per  single  crate 

Nectarines        25  pounds  per  single  crate 

Plums 26  pounds  per  single  crate 

Grapes 26  pounds  per  single  crate 

Grapes 56  pounds  per  double  crate 


Cherries,  box 

Peaches,  box 

Pears,  box 

Pears,  for  export  to  Europe,  box 
Apricots,  single  crate     .... 
Nectarines,  single  crate 
Prunes,  single  crate        .... 

Plums,  single  crate 

Grapes,  single  crate       .... 
Grapes,  double  crate     .... 


In  Inches 

Depth 

Width 

Length 

2% 

9 

19H 

5 

UH 

19H 

9 

UH 

19M 

4K 

im 

19^ 

5 

16 

17^ 

o 

16 

17M 

5 

16 

17^ 

5 

16 

171^ 

5 

16 

17H 

UH 

16 

17M 

\CA  COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

Chautauqua,    N.Y.,  grape  figures. 

The  grapes  are  shipped  in  8-pound  Climax  baskets,  which  weigh, 
when  not  filled,  20  ounces.  A  carload  is  2800  to  3000  baskets.  A 
girl  will  pack  from  100  to  150  baskets  per  day.  One  and  one-fourth 
cents  i)er  l)a.^ket  is  paid  for  picking  and  packing.  An  average  acre  of 
Concord  grapes  yields  about  500  baskets.  The  average  annual  cost 
of  cultivating  the  vineyard  up  to  picking  time  is  $8.  The  expense  of 
picking,  packing,  packages,  and  carting  is  about  $28  for  the  500  bas- 
kets. In  hulk,  the  grapes  are  shipped  in  crates  of  38  lb.  capacity  ; 
cost  of  picking  in  crates  is  about  2  cents  for  quantity  representing  2\ 
baskets.  The  bunches  are  cut  from  the  vines  with  shears  made  for 
the  purpose.     In  the  packing  house  the  bunches  are  trimmed. 

Citrus  fruits. 

The  specifications  of  the  boxes  used  in  the  packing  of  California 
oranges  are  shown  in  the  railroad  tariffs  with  an  estimated  weight,  and 
the  box  so  shown  is  the  only  one  used.  The  inside  dimensions  are 
Hi  in.XlU  in.X24  in.,  the  slats  are  26  in.  long,  but  the  thickness  of 
the  ends  and  center-pieces  is  2  in.,  making  the  inside  length  24  in. 
No.  2  Jumbo  orange-box,  lU  in.  X  12^  in.  X  24  in. 

The  California  box  for  lemons  shown  in  the  tarifT  is  IO2  in.  X  14  in. 
X  25  in.  Recently,  the  lemon  shippers  adopted  a  new-sized  box 
which  packs  lemons  to  better  advantage,  and  this  new  box  will  be 
used  as  soon  as  the  accumulation  of  old  stock  is  exhausted,  and 
the  tariffs  will  be  changed  to  show  its  dimensions,  which  are,  lOf  in. 
X  13i  in.  X  25  in.  inside.  Old  box,  3675  cu.  in. ;  new  box,  3501^ 
cu.  in. 

Florida  orange-box,  12  X  12  X  24|  in.  inside.  Half-box,  5t  X  12 
X  24^  in. 

Apple  boxes  (W.  A.  Taylor). 

The  memoranda  following  (p.  165)  show  legal  weights  to  the  bushel 
of  apples  and  legal  sizes  of  apple-boxes  and  barrels ;  also  the  usual 
standard  (not  legal)  sizes  of  apple-boxes  and  the  heaped-bushel  ex- 
pressed in  cubic  inches  in  such  states  as  have  expressed  the  capacity 
of  the  heaped-bushel  in  that  form. 

All  these  boxes  when  actually  used  are  subject  to  considerable 
variation  in  capacity,  resulting  from  the  use  or  non-use  of  cleats 
under  the  covers. 


SIZES   OF  FRUIT  PACKAGES 


165 


State 
Arkansas 


Apple  legislation  (Box  and  barrel  sizes  and  weights  per  bushel) 

Barrel  Size 


Pounds  per  Bu.  Box  Size 

"  Green  apples  "  50     20"  X  12"  x  9" 

"  lawful  bu. 

measure" 


Connecticut 
Florida  .  . 
Iowa  .  .  . 
Kansas  .  . 
Maine      .     . 


Maryland     .     . 

Massachusetts 
Michigan     .     . 


Minnesota 
Missouri  . 


Nebraska     . 
New  Jersey- 
New  York    . 


North  Carolina 
North  Dakota 
Ohio    .... 


Oregon  "stand- 
ard box  "  .     . 

Oregon  "special 
box"     . 

Tennessee 

Texas  .     . 

Vermont . 

Virginia  . 


Washington 
Wisconsin    . 


Apples"  .  .  48 
Apples,  green"  48 
Apples"  .  .  48 
Green  apples"  48 
Apples"      .     .  44 


Apples ' 
Apples ' 


20"  X  11"  X  10" 
2250  cu.  in  (i) 
"  stand,  bu.  box ' 

2212  cu.  in.    .     . 


48 
48 


2160  cu.  in. 


Head  17|" 
Stave  28V 
Bulge  64" 
6253i  cu.  in. 


3bu 


Apples,  green"  50 
Apples"     .    .    48 


Green  apples  "  48 
Apples"  .  .  50 
Apples"      .    .  48 


"  Green  apples"  48 
"  Apples"  .  .  50 
"Apples"      .    .  50 


"Apples' 


20"  X  11"  X  10" 


"Apples,  green"  50 
"Apples "  .  .  50 
"Apples"  .  .  46 
"Apples"      .    .  45 


"Green  apples"  45     18"Xlirxl0r 
"Apples"      .    .  48 


Heads  16|" 
Stave  27"  or 
flour  bbl.  size 

Heads  n\" 
Stave  28^' 
Diam.  center 
inside  20g" 


Head  17|" 

Stave  28|" 

Bulge  64" 

100  qt. 


Head  17|" 

Stave  28|" 
Bulge  66" 


.  45     18"  X  U\"  X  \Q\"       2173^  cu.  in. 


2200  cu.  in. 
2|bu. 


Head  171" 
Stave  27\" 
Bulge  64 


100  quarts 


Other  apple-box  sizes 

California  (40  lb.) 20|"  X  lOf"  X  9|" 1965 

California  (50  lb.) 201"  X  lU"  X  lOf"      :    .    .    .2393 

Canadian  (legal) 20"  X  11"  X  10" 2200 

Colorado 18"Xll"xl2" 2376 

Washington  "special"      .     .     .     .  20"xll"xl0" 2200 

Norwestern  special 20"  X  12"  X  10" 2400 

1  Printed  2250  cu.  in.  in  the  law,  but  the  dimensions  figure  2200  cu.  i] 


^66      COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF  CROP   PRODUCTS 

Legal  heaped-bushel  capacities    (Apples) 

Connectirut  (hrapttl  bu.) ^-^  ^!^- '.? 

Kansas  (hi-apetl  bu.) o'iaA  •»     •• 

Washington  (heaped  bu.) 25b4 

Box  packing  of  apples  in  Washington  and  Oregon  (C.  S.  Wilson). 

Boies.  —  (a)  Standard,  lOJ  in.  X  Hi  in.  X  18  in.  inside  measurement. 
(6)  Special,  10  in.  X  11  in.  X  20  in.  inside  measurement. 

Makrial.  —  Knds,  ^  in. ;  sides,  I  in  ;  tops  and  bottoms,  two  pieces  each, 
\  in.  thick.  There  should  be  two  cleats  for  each  top  and  bottom.  The 
sides  of  the  box  should  be  nailed  with  four  nails  at  each  end  of  each 
side.  The  cleats  should  be  put  neatly  on  the  box,  and  four  nails  driven 
through  them  and  through  the  top  or  bottom  into  the  ends.  Five- 
penny  cement-coated  nails  are  preferable. 

Wrapping  paper.  —  Any  of  the  following  grades  may  be  used  : 
Light  Manila,  heavy-weight  tissue,  or  "  white  news."  The  size  of 
the  wrapper  will  vary  somewhat,  according  to  the  size  of  the  apple. 
Two  sizes  should  be  ordered,  8  in.  X  10  in.  and  10  in.  X  10  in.  The 
approximate  cost  of  this  wrapping  paper  would  be,  light  Manila  and 
heavy-weight  tissue,  4i  or  5  cents  per  pound,  or  about  35  cents  per  thou- 
sand sheets;  "white  news,"  3^  cents  per  pound,  or  about  30  cents 
per  thousand  sheets. 

Lining  paper.  — The  lining  paper  is  made  from  "  white  news,"  size 
18  in.  X  24  in.  The  approximate  cost  of  this  paper  would  be  31  cents 
per  pound,  or  about  SI.  15  per  thousand  sheets. 

Layer  paper.  —  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  layer  paper  to 
raise  the  pack  in  order  to  come  out  right  at  the  top.  For  this  purpose 
u.se  colored  tag-board,  size  17i  in.  X  11  in.,  or  19^  in.  X  10^  in.,  ac- 
cording to  the  box.  The  approximate  cost  of  this  paper  would  be 
alx)ut  S7.50  per  thou.sand  sheets. 

Packing.  —  Before  placing  the  apples  on  the  packing  table  they 
are  u.sually  graded  into  different  sizes.  This  facilitates  very  much  the 
work  of  the  packers.  A  sizer  may  be  used  at  the  beginning,  but  one 
soon  trains  the  eye  to  recognize  the  different  grades.  The  diagonal 
pack  is  preferable,  although  one  is  forced  to  use  the  straight  pack  for 
a  few  sizes. 

The  following  table  was  u.sed  at  Hood  River,  Oregon,  in  the  fall  of 
1910  (C.  I.  Lewis,  in  "Better  Fruits"):  — 


SIZES   OF  FRUIT  PACKAGES 
Table  of  commercial  box  packs 


167 


Size  — Ex- 

pressed IN 
No.  Apples 

Tier 

Pack 

No.  Apples 
IN  Row 

No.  Layers 
IN  Depth 

Box  Used 

PER   Box 

45 

3 

3  St. 

5-5 

3 

Standard 

54 

3 

3  St. 

6-6 

3 

Special 

63 

3 

3  St. 

7-7 

3 

Special 

64 

sy2 

2-2  Diag. 

4-4 

4 

Standard 

72 

sy2 

2-2  Diag. 

4-5 

4 

Standard 

80 

3^ 

2-2  Diag. 

5-5 

4 

Standard 

88 

3H 

2-2  Diag. 

5-6 

4 

Standard 

96 

3^ 

2-2  Diag. 

6-6 

4 

Special 

104 

SH 

2-2  Diag. 

6-7 

4 

Special 

112 

3y2 

2-2  Diag. 

7-7 

4 

Special 

120 

3y2 

2-2  Diag. 

7-8 

4 

Special 

128 

4 

4  St. 

8-8 

4 

Special 

144 

4 

4  St. 

9-9 

4 

Special 

150 

4K 

3-2  Diag. 

6-6 

5 

Standard 

163 

4H 

3-2  Diag. 

6-7 

5 

Standard 

175 

4^ 

3-2  Diag. 

7-7 

5 

Standard 

188 

43^ 

3-2  Diag. 

7-8 

5 

Special 

200 

43^ 

3-2  Diag. 

8-8 

5 

Special 

Fruit  packages  in  Canada  (Fruit  Marks  Act). 

The  minimum  legal  limit  of  apple  barrel  is  a  barrel  having  a  dimen- 
sion of  not  less  than  26|  inches  between  the  heads,  inside  measure, 
and  a  head  diameter  of  17  inches,  and  a  middle  diameter  of  18|  inches, 
representing  as  nearly  as  possible  96  quarts. 

When  apples  are  packed  in  Canada  for  export,  for  sale  by  the 
box,  they  shall  be  packed  in  good  strong  boxes,  of  seasoned  wood,  the 
inside  dimensions  of  which  shall  not  be  less  than  10  inches  in  depth, 
11  inches  in  width,  and  20  inches  in  length,  representing  as  nearly 
as  possible  2200  cubic  inches. 

The  Inspection  and  Sale  Act,  dealing  with  fruit  baskets  (May,  1907), 
reads  as  follows  :  — 

"  2.  Every  basket  of  fruit  offered  for  sale  in  Canada,  unless  stamped 
on  the  side  plainly  in  black  letters  at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
deep  and  wide,  with  the  word  '  Quart '  in  full,  preceded  with  the  mini- 
mum number  of  quarts,  omitting  fractions,  which  the  basket  will  hold 
when  level-full,  shall  contain,  when  level-full,  one  or  other  of  the  fol- 
lowing quantities :  — 

*'  (a)  Fifteen  quarts  or  more. 


168     COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

"  (6)  Eleven  quarts,  and  be  5 J  inches  deep  perpendicularly,  18* 
inches  in  Icnplh,  and  8  inches  in  width  at  the  top  of  the  basket,  16  J 
inches  in  Icnpth,  and  dl  inches  in  width  at  the  bottom  of  the  basket,  as 
nearly  exactly  as  practicable,  all  measurements  to  be  inside  of  the 
veneer  proper,  and  not  to  include  the  top  band. 

•*  (c)  Six  quarts,  and  be  4^  inches  deep  perpendicularly,  15i  inches 
in  length,  and  7  inches  in  width  at  the  top  of  the  basket,  13^  inches 
in  length,  and  ol  inches  in  width  at  the  bottom  of  the  basket,  as  nearly 
exactly  as  practicable,  all  measurements  to  be  inside  of  the  veneer 
proper,  and  not  to  include  the  top  band :  Provided  that  the  Governor 
in  Council  may  by  proclamation  exempt  any  province  from  the  opera- 
tion of  this  section. 

"  id)    Two  and  two-fifths  quarts,  as  nearly  exactly  as  practicable." 

Proposed  United  States  standards   (Provisions  in  the   Lafean  Bill, 
now  before  Congress,  1911). 

First.  The  standard  box  package  for  apples  is  a  box  having  a  ca- 
pacity of  not  less  than  2342  cubic  inches  when  measured  without  dis- 
tention of  its  parts. 

Second.  The  standard  basket  package  for  apples  is  a  basket  having 
a  capacity  of  not  less  than  2342  cubic  inches,  when  measured  level- 
full,  without  distention  of  its  parts. 

Third.  The  standard  barrel  package  for  apples  is  a  barrel  of  the 
following  dimensions,  when  measured  without  distention  of  its  parts : 
Length  of  stave,  28^  inches;  diameter  of  head,  17i  inches,  distance 
between  heads,  26  inches;  circumference  of  bulge,  64  inches,  outside 
measurement. 

Section  3.  That  the  standard  grade  for  apples  which  shall  be  shipped 
or  delivered  for  shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  or  which 
shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  within  the  District  of  Columbia  or  the 
Territories  of  the  United  States,  are  as  follows :  — 

Apples  of  one  variety,  which  arc  well-grown  specimens,  hand-picked, 
of  go(Kl  color  for  the  variety,  normal  shape,  practically  free  from  in- 
sect and  fungus  injury,  bruises,  and  other  defects,  except  such  as  are 
necessarily  caused  in  the  operation  of  packing,  or  apples  of  one  variety, 
which  are  not  more  than  10  per  centum  below  the  foregoing  specifica- 
tions, are  .standard  grade  "  U.  S.  Size  A,"  if  the  minimum  size  of  the 
apples  is  two  and  one-half  inches  in  transverse  diameter :  or  are  stand- 


SIZES   OF   TRUCK  PACKAGES  169 

ard  grade  "  U.  S.  Size  B,"  if  the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two  and 
one-fourth  inches  in  transverse  diameter;  or  are  standard  grade 
"  U.  S.  Size  C./'  if  the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two  inches  ia 
transverse  diameter. 


Packages  for  truck  crops,  including  strawberries  (L.  C.  Corbett). 

Potatoes.  —  Truck  crop  potatoes  are  shipped  from  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board points  in  ventilated  barrels  holding  2\  bushels ;  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  and  Gulf  States  in  sacks  holding  190  pounds  ;  from 
Maine  in  sacks  holding  165  pounds;  and  from  the  California  and 
Colorado  sections  in  sacks  holding  100  pounds  (everything  in  this 
region  being  sold  by  net  weight  rather  than  by  bushel) .  In  northern 
sections  of  Vermont,  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  potatoes  are 
largely  sold  in  bulk  by  weight  at  so  much  per  bushel. 

Cabbages  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  states  south  of  Baltimore  are 
shipped  either  in  crates  or  ventilated  barrels  holding  2j  bushels. 
These  crates  are  usually  flat,  about  3  feet  long.  At  the  North,  crates 
3  feet  square  are  often  used  for  shipment  of  cabbage,  but  the  general 
crop  grown  for  storage  and  for  the  manufacture  of  kraut  is  sold  in 
bulk  by  the  ton  (heads  trimmed) . 

Cauliflower  from  the  Southern  fields  is  almost  universally  shipped 
in  ventilated  barrels,  packed  in  excelsior,  barrels  being  standard  truck- 
crop-barrel  of  2\  bushels.     California  package  is  a  flat  carrier  holding 

I  dozen  or  1|  dozen  heads. 

Brussels  sprouts  are  packed  in  quart  cups,  in  crates  holding  32  cups. 

Tomatoes  from  Eastern  States  in  crates  holding  about  1  bushel, 
similar  to  those  used  for  the  shipment  of  muskmelons,  dimensions 
about  12  in.  X  12  in.  X  22  in.  Some  fruits  arrive  from  Florida  in  this 
type  of  package,  but  most  tomatoes  come  in  6-basket  carriers  similar 
to  those  used  for  peaches.  In  Texas  a  flat,  4-basket  carrier,  which  is 
only  one  tier  deep,  is  almost  universally  used. 

Onions  of  the  winter  sorts  are  shipped  either  in  ventilated  barrels  or 
standard  sacks  holding  about  2f  bushels.  The  Texas  Bermuda  crop 
is  universally  shipped  in  slatted  bushel  crates,  20  inches  long,  12  inches 
wide,  and  12  inches  deep. 

Celery  from   the   Florida  section  is  packed  in  flat   crates  usually 

II  in.  X  20  in.  X  24  in.     The  California  package  is  a  cubical  crate, 


170     COMMERCIAL    GRADES   OF   CROP   PRODUCTS 

24  in.  X  24  in.  X  20  in.  Most  Eastern  sections  use  the  California  type 
of  packuRo. 

Muskmelons  from  incst  sections  arrive  in  a  veneer  crate  very  similar 
in  shape  to  the  orange-box  but  somewhat  smaller,  the  dimensions  be- 
ing approximately  12  in.  X  12  in.  X  22  in.  Some  sections  ship  melons 
in  ()(^(iuart  and  32-(iuart  berry  crates,  while  a  small  percentage  of  the 
crop  arrives  in  flat  carriers  arranged  to  hold  a  single  layer  of  melons. 
These  carriers  usually  contain  IS  to  24  melons. 

Eggplants  are  usually  wrapped  in  paper  and  forwarded  in  60-quart 
berry  crates. 

Peas  are  shipped  largely  in  I  standard  Delaware  baskets  with  ven- 
tilate<l  wood  covers,  or  in  barrel-high  Delaware  baskets  with  ventilated 
wood  covers. 

Sweet-potatoes  are  shipped  in  ventilated  barrels  holding  2j  bushels, 
covered  with  burlap. 

Asparagus  is  shipped  in  carriers  made  to  accommodate  8  to  12 
bunches. 

String  beans  (snap)  are  shipped  either  in  2-bushel  or  barrel-high 
Delaware  baskets. 

Beets  are  usually  pulled  when  2  or  2^  inches  in  diameter  and  tied 
in  bunches  of  3  to  0  beets  and  packed  in  60-quart  berry  crates,  venti- 
lated barrels,  or  barrel-high  Delaware  baskets,  depending  on  the  market 
to  which  they  are  consigned. 

Water-cress  is  either  marketed  in  })unchcs  or  in  bulk  in  iced  barrels, 
or  in  iced  barrel-high  Delaware  baskets. 

Cucumbers  are  marketed  from  the  trucking  region  either  in  venti- 
lated barrels,  barrel-high,  or  ^-bushel  Delaware  baskets;  and  in  the 
pickle-growing  districts  they  are  marketed  in  bulk  by  the  hundred- 
weight. 

Lettuce  from  the  truck-farming  districts  is  marketed  in  either 
i-bushel  or  l)arrel-high,  Delaware  baskets  or  in  ventilated  barrels.  The 
barrel  package  is  not,  however,  generally  used. 

Spinach  is  almost  universally  marketed  from  the  truck-farming 
sections  in  ventilated  barrels.  A  small  (piantity  is  received  in  barrel- 
hiiih  Delaware  ba-skets. 

Okra  is  marketed  either  in  ()-l)asket  carriers  or  in  a  special  flat 
carrier  without  baskets,  in  which  the  pods  are  carefully  arranged  one 
layer  wide.     These  packages  are  usually  about  2  feet  long. 


SIZES    OF   TRUCK  PACKAGES  171 

Green  'peppers  are  almost  universally  marketed  in  6-basket  carriers. 

Radishes  are  tied  in  bunches  and  packed  in  1-bushel  or  barrel-high 
Delaware  baskets,  as  a  rule.    A  few  are  marketed  in  ventilated  barrels. 

Strawberries  are  offered  in  quart  cups,  either  in  60-quart  crates  from 
the  Carolina  and  Norfolk  region,  or  in  24-  or  32-quart  crates  from 
other  regions,  the  32-quart  being  more  universally  used  than  any  other. 

Dimensions. 

The  truck  barrel  is  28  inches  high  and  has  16-inch  heads. 

The  eggplant  and  squash  crate  has  a  head  11  in.  X  14  in.,  and  is  24 
inches  long. 

The  half-barrel  basket  commonly  used  in  the  Norfolk  region  is  20 
inches  high,  9|  inches  at  the  bottom  and  17  inches  at  the  top. 

The  asparagus-box  has  heads  10  in.  high,  15  inches  at  the  top  and 
17  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  slats  26  inches  long,  outside  measure, 
making  it  10  in.  X  15  in.  X  17  in.  X  24  in.  inside. 

The  one-half  barrel  lettuce  basket,  called  the  "  Delaware  barrel-high 
basket,"  is  16  inches  inside  diameter  at  the  top,  9  inches  inside  diam- 
eter at  the  bottom,  and  27  inches  high. 

The  cabbage  crate  which  comes  from  Norfolk  is  IH  in-  X18  in.  on 
the  heads,  and  is  36  inches  long  with  a  partition  in  the  middle. 

The  three-peck  basket  which  is  used  early  in  the  season  for  shipping 
peas,  beans,  cucumbers,  and  crookneck  squashes  is  20  inches  high,  14 
inches  inside  measure  at  the  top,  and  8^  inches  inside  measure  at  the 
bottom. 

The  fiat  onion  crate  with  partition  in  the  center  has  16  in.  X  7  in. 
heads,  and  is  24  inches  long. 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Judging  of  Farms,  Crops,  and  Plants.      Exhibition  and 
Nomenclature  Rules.     Emblematic  Plants  and  Flowers 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  great  development  of  the  desire  to 
standardize  knowledge  in  agriculture ;  and  to  this  end  many  formal 
plans  have  been  devised  to  enable  one  to  set  numerical  measures  to  the 
various  attributes  of  an  object  or  an  establishment  or  an  operation. 
One  is  thereby  able  "  to  judge,"  and  to  score  the  object  by  com- 
parison with  an  ideal  scale  of  j)oints  rather  than  with  other  objects  like 
itself,  (lood  scoring  eliminates  the  old  method  at  fairs,  for  example, 
of  giving  a  first  prize  to  the  best  of  several  competitors :  it  gives  it  only 
to  those  that  score  sufficiently  high  in  a  scale  of  grades  of  perfection. 

The  making  of  score-cards  has  now  come  to  be  a  popular  practice  in  the 
colleges  of  agriculture,  in  fairs,  and  in  societies,  and  the  number  of  pub- 
lished cards  is  very  large.  In  this  chapter  only  a  few  representative 
scores  can  be  given ;  score-cards  for  animals  are  given  in  Chap.  XXI. 
If  the  reader  wants  score-cards  of  the  different  breeds  of  animals,  he 
may  find  them  in  Vol.  Ill  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 

Farms  and  Farm  Practices 

The  "  agricultural  virtues  "   (Pearson). 

Better  prices,  more  than  anything  else,  have  put  new  life  into  our 
agriculture,  and  have  brought  about  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  some 
farmers  to  adopt  better  methods,  and  have  emphasized  the  greater 
opportunity  open  to  all  farmers  and  the  need  of  the  general  adoption  of 
the  best  methods,  such  as  are  well  known  to  the  few.  These  best 
methods  include  the  following :  — 
1  Conservation  of  fertility. 
2.  Thorough  cultivation. 

172 


PRECEPTS  FOR  FARMERS  AND    GARDENERS  173 

3.  Drainage. 

4.  Growth  of  leguminous  crops. 

5.  The  use  of  cover-crops. 

6.  The  proper  use  of  lime  and  commercial  fertilizers. 

7.  Crop  rotation. 

8.  Selection  of  seed. 

9.  Spraying  for  fungous  and  insect  pests. 

10.  Disposal  of  poor  cows. 

11.  Use  of  pure-bred  sires. 

12.  Feeding  economical  rations. 

13.  Protection  against  bovine  tuberculosis. 

14.  Production  of  clean  milk. 

15.  Keeping  of  farm  business  accounts. 

16.  Use  of  mechanical  power  and  machinery. 

17.  Employment  of  labor  throughout  the  year. 

18.  Maintaining  a  reputation  for  honesty. 

19.  The  providing  of  home  comforts. 

20.  Reading  reliable  agricultural  publications. 

21.  Membership  in  active  agricultural  organizations. 

London's  rules  for  gardeners. 

1.  Perform  every  operation  in  the  proper  season  and  in  the  best 
manner. 

2.  Complete  every  operation  consecutively. 

3.  Never,  if  possible,  perform  one  operation  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
render  another  necessary. 

4.  When  called  off  from  any  operation,  leave  your  work  and  tools  in 
an  orderly  manner. 

5.  In  leaving  off  work,  make  a  temporary  finish,  and  clean  your  tools 
and  carry  them  to  the  tool-house. 

6.  Never  do  that  in  the  garden  or  hothouses  which  can  be  equally 
well  done  in  the  reserve  ground  or  in  the  back  sheds. 

7.  Never  pass  a  weed  or  insect  without  pulling  it  up  or  taking  it  off, 
unless  time  forbid. 

8.  In  gathering  a  crop,  take  away  the  useless  as  well  as  the  useful 
parts. 

9.  Let  no  plant  ripen  seeds,  unless  they  are  wanted  for  some  purpose, 
useful  or  ornamental,  and  remove  all  parts  which  are  in  a  state  of  decay. 


174         TlIK   JUDGING    OF   FARMS,    CROPS,    AND   PLANTS 

Essential  things  to  consiikr  in  the  organization  of  a  farm. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  principles  underlyiiiK  the  proper  layout  and 
organization  of  a  farm,  since  the  plan  must  conform  to  the  person  and 
to  local  conditions.  The  leading  points  to  consider  are  perhaps  the 
fdllowing : 

The  adaptation  of  the  plan  to  the  kind  of  farming  that  is  to  be  pur- 
sued. 

The  best  utilization  of  the  different  soils  and  exposures  and  natural 
features  on  the  place. 

The  economizing  of  time  and  lalwr  in  reaching  all  parts  of  the 
fann. 

The  best  location  of  buildings  with  reference  to  efficiency  of  admin- 
i.stration. 

Such  layout  as  will  best  provide  for  rotation  and  the  maintenance  of 
fertility. 

A  projK'r  j)roportion  between  the  different  parts,  as  between  tilled 
and  untilknl  land,  forest  and  open,  meadow  and  pasture,  forage  crops 
and  grazing,  orchards  and  annual  crops. 

Provision  for  the  necessary  live-stock. 

Such  shape  and  size  of  fields  as  will  best  lend  them  to  economical 
working. 

Provision  for  the  more  personal  parts  of  the  place,  as  gardens,  yards, 
and  ornamental  features. 

Development  of  the  artistic  or  attractive  appearance  of  the  entire 
estate. 

Points  of  a  good  farm. 

In  looking  for  a  farm,  the  inquirer  should  consider  the  question  pri- 
marily from  a  business  point  of  view.  He  should  know  what  are  the 
•*  points  "  of  a  good  farm.  It  is  well  to  make  a  list  of  the  points,  to 
study  the  place  with  reference  to  them,  and  to  score  it  under  each,  as 
one  would  score  a  horse  or  a  cow.  The  points  or  attributes  are 
of  two  clas.ses:  those  that  are  internal,  or  part  of  the  farm  itself; 
and  thast;  that  are  external,  or  have  to  do  with  geographical  loca- 
tion, neighborhocxl,  and  the  like.  Some  of  the  points  may  be 
mentioned :  — 


FEATURES    OF   GOOD   FARMS  175 

Internal  External 

Lay  of  the  land,  or  topography  Climate 

Size  of  the  farm  Healthfulness 

Shape  of  the  farm  Neighborhood 

Kind  of  soil  Distance  from  town  or  railway  station 
Condition  of  soil  as  regards  fertility  and     Shipping  facilities 

physical  properties  Means  of  communication 

Drainage  Labor  supply 

Water-supply  Markets  in  which  to  buy  and  sell 

State  of  cultivation  School  and  church  privileges 
Crops  now  standing,  and  their  condi-     Character  of  the  farming  in  the  com- 

tion  munity 

Woodland  Rural  organizations 

Character  of  fields  and  of  fences  Likelihood  of   increase  or  decrease   in 

Buildings  and  other  improvements  value 

Kind    of    farming    to    which    place  is 

adapted 

Score-card  for  farms  (Warren) 
Size  Standard 

1.  Adapted  to  kind  of  farming 20 

Fields 

2.  Shape  and  size 30 

3.  Nearness  to  farmstead 30 

Topography 

4.  As  affecting  ease  of  cultivation        30 

5.  As  affecting  production 10 

6.  As  affecting  erosion  and  loss  of  fertility 15 

7.  As  affecting  air  drainage 5 

Fertility 

8.  Natural 80 

9.  Condition        40 

Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil 

10.  As  affecting  economy  of  cultivation "I        gQ 

11.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor J 

12.  As  affecting  loss  of  soil  fertility 10 

13.  As  affecting  kinds  of  possible  crops 20 

Drainage 

14.  Natural 


15.  Artificial J 

Condition 

16.  Freedom  from  stumps,  stones,  weeds,  waste  land,  etc.   ...  50 
Climate 

17.  As  affecting  animal  and  crop  production 

18.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor        

Healthfulness 

19.  As  an  economic  factor 40 

Location 

20.  Distance  to  market 40 

21.  Roadways        50 

22.  Local  markets 30 

23.  Shipping  facilities 20 

24.  Neighbors  as  an  economic  factor 40 

25.  Labor  supply  of  neighborhood 10 

26.  R.  F.  D.,  telephone,  trolleys,  etc. 30 

27.  Churches,  school,  grange,  etc.,  as  economic  factors    ....  30 
Taxes 

28.  Per  cent  on  cash  value 10 


17r,         Tilt:  Jl'DGIXG    OF   FARMS,    CROPS,   AND   PLANTS 

Score-card  for  farms  —  Continued 
gjjj  Standard 

WATER-srPPLT 

21>.    KunninK  water.  woUs 4U 

ImP»')VEMEN'TS 

'M).    Site  of  farmstoad 10 

31.  Huusr  a.s  adapted  to  needs  of  farm 60 

32.  Other  buildings 60 

33.  Fences,  kind,  condition,  arrangement 30 

34.  Timber,  orchards,  vineyards,  etc 20 

ToT.\L 

Deductions  for 

Score      

.\rea  in  acres 

Price  asked 

Price  per  acre 

Price  per  acre  (excluding  waste  land) 

K.>5tinKited  value 

Which  farm  would  you  prefer  to  buy  ? 

The  number  of  points  assigned  in  the  foregoing  score-card  is  not  the 
limit,  but  is  suggestive.  For  example,  if  the  water-supply  is  exception- 
ally good,  give  it  more  than  forty  points.  Any  other  exceptional 
values  may  be  scored  more  than  the  points  assigned.  In  some  cases, 
a  (leiluction  of  all  the  points  assigned  is  not  sufficient.  Distance  to 
market  may  absolutely  disqualify  a  farm  for  the  sale  of  milk.  If  the 
score-card  is  followed  exactly,  this  farm  may  score  higher  than  a  fairly 
po(xi  farm  near  market.  In  all  such  cases,  deduct  additional  points 
from  the  total  score.  It  is  only  by  this  flexibility  that  scores  can  be 
made  that  are  truly  comparable.  The  best  farm  for  the  purpose 
should  have  the  highest  final  score.  The  chief  purposes  of  a  score-card 
are  to  make  the  examination  systematic  and  to  prevent  the  forgetting 
of  important  items. 

If  the  points  are  not  properly  distributed  for  the  kind  of  farming  to 
bf  followed,  a  new  distribution  of  points  should  be  made  before  com- 
I)aring  farms.  For  example,  for  truck  farms,  all  points  that  have  to  do 
with  ease  of  tillage  should  be  given  a  higher  rating,  while  fertility  is  of 
less  importance.  In  irrigated  sections,  water  right,  alkali,  and  ease  of 
application  of  water  must  be  included. 

No  points  are  a.ssigned  for  climate.  This  should  be  considered  when 
judging  farms  in  different  regions  or  at  different  altitudes,  or  when 
topography  or  proximity  to  water  makes  a  difference  in  the  climate  of 
the  farms  that  are  being  compared.  This  would  be  specially  impor- 
tant near  sea-coasts  and  in  little  understood  climatic  situations. 


SCORE-CARDS  177 

Corn  and  Potatoes 

Score-card  for  dent  corn  (Ohio  Improvement  Association) 

For  use  in  the  final  selection  of  seed  ears 

1.  Adaptability 25 

2.  Seed  condition '  15 

3.  Shape  of  kernel ]  I5 

4.  Uniformity  and  trueness  to  type ]  15 

5.  Weight  of  ear 10 

6.  Length  and  proportion 10 

7.  Color  of  grain  and  cob 5 

8.  Butts  and  tips 5 

loo 

For  use  in  the  plant  selection  of  seed  corn 

1.  Adaptability 35 

2.  Vigor 25 

3.  Height  of  plant,  and  height  and  angle  of  ear 15 

4.  Uniformity  and  trueness  to  type 10 

5.  Weight  of  ear  (estimated) 15 

100 
Card  for  use  in  judging  varieties  of  corn  at  husking  time 

1.  Bushels  per  acre  (uniform  moisture  test) 50 

2.  Maturity 25 

3.  Uniformity  and  trueness  to  type 15 

4.  Color 10 

100 
Score-card  for  potatoes 

Uniformity 20  points 

Symmetry 15  points 

Trueness  to  type 20  points 

Freedom  from  disease  and  insects        15  points 

Commercial  value 30  points 

100  points 

Standards    for    Judging    Fruits    at    Exhibitions      (Ontario,    Canada, 
Fruit-Growers'  Association,  1911) 

Apples  and  Pears.  —  Single  Plates 

Form ]^ 

Size if 

Color       25 

Uniformity        25 

Freedom  from  blemish _20 

100 
Peaches.  —  Single  Plates 

Form 15 

Size 20 

Color       25 

Uniformity        ~JJ 

Freedom  from  blemish _^ 

100 


17S      TiiK  jrixnyr.  or  FAii}fs,  crops,  and  plants 

Plums.  —  Single  Plates 

^;•>""     i? 

Color        15 

lUiformity        -5 

l-rt't'doiu  frum  blfiiiish ^5 

100 
Clu'rries.  —  Single  Platea 

Form       10 

Size 20 

Color       20 

I'niformity        25 

I'reetloin  from  blemish 25 

100 
Grapes.  —  Single  Plates 

Form  of  bunch 10 

Sixe  of  bunch 15 

Size  of  iK-rrv 10 

Color        .    ' 10 

Hloorn 5 

Fri'«'<ioni  from  blcnii-sh 20 

Flavor 25 

Firmness 5 

100 
Collections  of  Apples,  Pears,  Plums,  Peaches,  Cherries,  and  Grapes  on  Plates 

Freedom  from  blemish 20 

Color 15 

rnifornutv        10 

Siz- 10 

Form        10 

Commercial  value 10 

(^lality 10 

Nomenclature        5 

Arrangement 5 

Season 5 

loo 

Barrels.  —  Apples 
Friiil:  — 

Siz<' 10 

Color 20 

Fniformity 15 

Freedom  from  l)lemish 15 

Texture  and  flavor 15 

75  75 

Package :  — 

Material        4 

Finishing q 

Packing :  — 

Facing q 

Tiiiling !!!!!.*.'!  2 

Hiicking 3 

Pressing 4 

T5  _15 

100 


SCORE-CARDS 


179 


Fruit: Boxes.  —  Apples,  Pears,  Peaches 

Size 10 

Color 20 

Uniformity  .     .     .  _ 15 

Freedom  from  blemish !  15 

Texture  and  flavor 15 

Package  and  packing:  — 

Material        3 

Finishing 4 

Fullness  or  bulge 4 

Solidity  or  compactness 5 

Attractiveness  and  style  of  pack 5 

Alignment 4 

"25  _25 

Flowers  and  Plants  100 

The  American  Rose  Society  scale  of  points 

All  exhibits  will  be  judged  by  points  in  accordance  with  the  following  official 
scales : — 


Com- 

Novelties 
FOR  Cer- 

Com- 

Novelties 

Points  of  Value 

petitive 

Points  of  Value 

petitive 

for  Cer- 

Classes 

ETC. 

Classes 

etc. 

Size       .... 

15 

10 

Foliage     . 

15 

15 

Color    .... 

20 

20 

Fragrance     (for 

Stem     .... 

20 

15 

novelties  only) 

— 

5 

Form    .... 

15 

15 

Distinctiveness 

— 

10 

Substance      .     , 

15 

10 

100 

100 

Standardization  of  the  grading  of  roses  (American  Rose  Society,  1911). 

Nine-inch,  twelve-inch,  fifteen-inch,  eighteen-inch,  and  twenty-four- 
inch,  and  higher  as  necessary.  Such  a  grading  should  be  appreciated 
by  both  the  commission  men  and  retailers. 


Scale  of  points  for  judging  carnations  (American  Carnation  Society) 

This  scale  shall  be  employed  in  judging  all  seedlings  for  Certificate  of  Merit, 
or  for  any  special  prize,  and  in  all  classes  where  competition  is  close,  it  shall  be 
used  to  arrive  at  a  decision :  — 

Color        25 

Size 20 

Calyx 5 

Stem 20 

Substance 10 

Form        15 

Fragrance 5 

Total .     100 


180        THE  Jl'DGING    OF  FARMS,   CROPS,   AND   PLANTS 


Scale  for  gladioli  (American  Gladiolus  Society) 

Resistance  to  disease 5 

Texture  of  flower JO 

Duration  of  bloom 10 

Size  of  bloom JO 

Color  of  bloom J^ 

Form  of  flower JO 

Form  of  spike JO 

Stem  (lenRth  and  stiffness)        JO 

Number  of  flowers  on  spike 15 

Vigor  (aside  from  disease  resistance) 5 

Chrysanthemum  (Official  Scale  of  Chrysanthemum  Society) 

Commercial  Exhibition 

Color 20     Color 10 

Form 15     Stem 5 

Fullness 10     Foliage 5 

Stem        15     Fullness 15 

Foliage 15     Form 15 

Substance 16     Depth 15 

Size JJ     Size _35 

100  100 

Single  varieties  Pompon  varieties 

Color 40     Color        40 

Form 20     Form        20 

Substance 20     Stem  and  foliage 20 

Stem  and  foliage _20     Fullness _20 

100  100 

Single  varieties  to  be  divided  into  two  classes,  large-flowered  and  small- 
flowered. 

Scaie  of  points  to  govern  judges  of  sweet  peas  (National  Sweet  Pea 
Society  of  America) 

Length  of  stem 25     Substance 15 

Color 20     Number  of  flowers  on  a  stem       .  J^ 

Sizf 25         Total 100 

The  sweet  pea  or  other  foliage  can  be  used  with  the  flowers  unattached,  and 
flower  stems  must  be  free  of  wood,  unless  otherwise  specified.  Wiring  of  flowers 
or  stems  will  disqualify. 

Scale  of  points  of  florists'  plants  adopted  by  National  Flower  Show 
of  the  Society  of  American  Florists 

No.  1.  Single  Specimen  Foliage  Plants 

Size  of  plant 25     Rarity       15 

Cultural  perfection 35     Form 10 

Distinctiveness 15 


SCORE-CARDS  181 


No.  2.    Single  Specimen  Flowering  Plants 

Size  of  plant 20     Floriferousness 15 

Cultural  perfection 35     Color 10 

Rarity 10     Foliage 10 

No.  3.    Collections  or  Number  of  Flowering  Plants 

Size  of  group  or  collection    ...     15     Arrangement  or  staging  ....  10 

Distinctiveness 15     Color  harmony 10 

Cultural  perfection 20     Rarity        10 

Number  of  varieties 20 

No.  4.    Collections  or  Number  of  Foliage  Plants 

Size  of  group  or  collection    ...     15     Number  of  varieties 20 

Rarity 15     Arrangement  or  staging  ....  20 

Cultural  perfection 30 

No.  5.    Group  of  Foliage  Plants 

Size 10     Rarity 10 

Distinctiveness 20     Arrangement  or  staging  ....  30 

Cultural  perfection 20     Color  effect 10 

No.  6.    Group  of  Flowering  Plants 

Size  of  group 10     Arrangement       .......  35 

Rarity 10     Quality  of  flowers 20 

Cultural  perfection 15     Foliage 10 


Sample  Rtiles  to  Govern  Exhibitions 

Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  rules  (1911). 

Special  rules  of  the  plant  and  flower  committee.  —  1.  All  named 
varieties  of  Plants  or  Flowers  exhibited  for  premiums  or  other  awards 
must  have  the  name  legibly  and  correctly  written  on  stiff  card,  wood, 
or  some  other  permanent  substance ;  and  each  separate  plant  or  flower 
must  have  its  name  attached. 

2.  All  exhibits  shall  be  marked  by  a  card  on  which  shall  appear  the 
name  and  address  of  the  exhibitor  and  inclosed  in  an  envelope  on  which 
shall  appear  only  the  number  of  Prize  as  listed  in  the  Schedule. 

3.  Plants  in  Pots,  to  be  entitled  to  Prizes,  must  evince  skillful  culture 
in  the  profusion  of  bloom  or  decorative  foliage,  and  in  the  beauty, 
sjmametry,  and  vigor  of  the  specimens. 

4.  No  awards  will  be  made  on  other  than  regular  prize  days,  except 
for  objects  of  special  merit. 


I  SI'        77/ A-  Jl'DGIXG    OF  FARMS,   CROPS,   AND   PLANTS 

Special  rultti  of  the  fruit  commitlee.  —  All  fruits  offered  for  pre- 
miums must  l)e  correctly  named.  Indefinite  ai)pellations,  such  as  "  ri;> 
pin,"  **  Sweeting,"  *' Clreenins,"  I'tc,  will  not  be  considered  as  names. 

2.  All  Fruits  offered  for  premiums  must  be  composed  of  exactly  the 
number  of  specimens  or  quantity  named  in  the  Schedule.  A  "  dish  "  of 
Apples,  Pears,  Peaches,  Plums,  Nectarines,  Quinces,  Figs,  Apricots, 
etc.,  is  understt)()d  to  contain  twelve  s|)ecimens,  and  this  number  will 
be  rtHjuircd  of  all  Fruits  when  not  otherwise  specified. 

3.  The  whole  quantity  required  of  any  one  variety  of  Fruit  must  be 
8ho\ni  in  a  single  dish  or  basket  except  in  collections. 

4.  Contributors  of  Fruits  for  Exhibition  or  Prizes  must  present  the 
same  in  the  Society's  dishes.  All  Small  Fruits  must  be  shown  in 
baskets  of  uniform  size,  which  will  be  furnished  to  exhibitors  by  the 
Superintendent  at  cost. 

5.  No  person  can  compete  for  more  than  one  Prize  with  the  same 
variety  or  varieties  of  Fruit;  except  that  a  single  dish  of  the  same 
variety,  but  not  the  same  specimens  of  fruit,  may  be  used  by  an  ex- 
hibitor for  both  Special  and  Regular  Prizes. 

6.  The  Fruit  Committee,  in  making  its  awards,  will  consider  the 
flavor,  beauty,  and  size  of  the  specimens,  comparing  each  of  these 
j)roperties  with  a  fair  standard  of  the  variety.  The  adaptation  of  the 
variety  to  general  cultivation  will  also  be  taken  into  account.  Other 
things  being  equal,  specimens  most  nearly  in  perfection  as  regards 
ripeness  will  have  the  preference.  Score-cards  may  be  used  at  the 
discretion  of  the  Committee. 

Special  rules  of  the  vegetable  committee.  —  1.  The  specimens  offered 
nmst  be  well  grown  and  i)laced  on  the  tables  clean  and  correctly 
labeled. 

2.  All  exhibits  of  Vegetables  offered  for  premium  must  be  composed 
of  exactly  the  number  of  specimens  or  quantity  named  in  the  Schedule. 

3.  At  all  exhil)itions  of  Fungi  distinctively  colored  cards,  having  the 
word  "Poisonous"  plainly  printed  thereon,  shall  be  provided,  and  all 
persons  exhibiting  Fungi  not  known  to  be  edible  shall  be  required  to  use 
these  cards  in  labeling  all  such  exhibits. 

4.  All  collections  of  vegetables  will  be  judged  on  merit,  giving  con- 
sideration, first,  to  cjuality;  second,  to  arrangement;  and  third,  to 
variety.  Not  more  than  two  varieties  of  one  kind  of  vegetable  admis- 
sible in  collections. 


RULES   FOR   NAMING    VEGETABLES  183 

Nomenclature  Rules 

Rules  for  naming  kitchen-garden  vegetables,  adopted  by  the  Committee  on 
Nomenclature  of  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges 
and  Experiment  Stations  (1889,  and  still  in  force). 

1.  The  name  of  a  variet}^  shall  consist  of  a  single  word,  or  at  most  of 
two  words.  A  phrase,  descriptive  or  otherwise,  is  never  allowable; 
as,  Pride  of  Italy,  King  of  Mammoths,  Earliest  of  All. 

2.  The  name  should  not  be  superlative  or  bombastic.  In  particular, 
such  epithets  as  Neiv,  Large,  Giant,  Fine,  Selected,  Improved,  and  the 
like,  should  be  omitted.  If  the  grower  or  dealer  has  a  superior  stock  of  a 
variety,  the  fact  should  be  stated  in  the  description  immediately  after 
the  name,  rather  than  as  a  part  of  the  name  itself;  as,  '^ Trophy, 
selected  stock." 

3.  If  a  grower  or  dealer  has  secured  a  new  select  strain  of  a  well- 
known  variety,  it  shall  be  legitimate  for  him  to  use  his  own  name  in 
connection  with  the  established  name  of  the  variety;  as,  Smith's 
Winnigstadt,  Jones's  Cardinal. 

4.  When  personal  names  are  given  to  varieties,  titles  should  be 
omitted;    as  Major,  General,  etc. 

5.  The  term  "  hybrid  "  should  not  be  used  except  in  those  rare  in- 
stances in  which  the  variety  is  known  to  be  of  hybrid  origin. 

6.  The  originator  has  the  prior  right  to  name  the  variety,  but  the 
oldest  name  which  conforms  to  these  rules  should  be  adopted. 

7.  This  Committee  reserves  the  right,  in  its  own  publications,  to 
revise  objectionable  names  in  conformity  with  these  rules. 

Code  of  7iomenclature  of  the  American  Pomological  Society. 

Priority.  —  Rule  1.  No  two  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit 
shall  bear  the  same  name.  The  name  first  published  for  a  variety 
shall  be  the  accepted  and  recognized  name,  except  in  cases  where 
it  has  been  applied  in  violation  of  this  code. 

A.  The  term  "  kind  "  as  herein  used  shall  be  understood  to  apply  to 
those  general  classes  of  fruits  which  are  grouped  together  in  common 
usage  without  regard  to  their  exact  botanical  relationship,  as  apple, 
cherry,  grape,  peach,  plum,  raspberry,  etc. 

B.  The  paramount  right  of  the  originator,  discoverer,  or  introducer 


184        Tin:  jriK;iSU    OF  FARMS,   CROPS,   AND   PLANTS 

of  a  new  variety  to  name  it,  witliin  the  limitations  of  this  code,  is  recog- 
nized and  emphasized. 

C.  Where  a  variety  name  through  long  usage  has  become  thoroughly 
established  in  American  pomological  literature  for  two  or  more  varieties, 
it  should  not  be  displaced  nor  radically  modified  for  either  sort,  except 
in  cases  where  a  well-known  synonym  can  be  advanced  to  the  position 
of  leading  name.  The  several  varieties  bearing  identical  names  should 
be  distingui.shed  l)y  adding  the  name  of  the  author  who  first  described 
each  sort,  or  by  adding  some  other  suitable  distinguishing  term  which 
will  insure  their  identity  in  catalogues  or  discussions. 

D.  Existing  American  names  of  varieties  which  conflict  with  earlier 
published  foreign  names  of  the  same  or  other  varieties,  but  which  have 
become  thoroughly  established  through  long  usage,  shall  not  be  dis- 
placed. 

Form  of  Names.  —  Rule  2.  The  name  of  a  variety  of  fruit  shall  con- 
sist of  a  single  word. 

A.  No  variety  shall  be  named  unless  distinctly  superior  to  existing 
varieties  in  some  important  characteristic,  nor  until  it  has  been  deter- 
mined to  perpetuate  it  by  bud  propagation. 

B.  In  selecting  names  for  varieties  the  following  points  should  be 
emphasized :  Distinctiveness,  simplicity,  ease  of  pronunciation  and 
8i)elhng,  indication  of  origin  or  parentage. 

C.  The  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  a  varietal  name  derived  from 
a  personal  or  geographical  name  should  be  governed  by  the  rules  which 
control  the  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  the  name  from  which  it  was 
derived. 

D.  A  variety  imported  from  a  foreign  country  should  retain  its 
foreign  name,  subject  only  to  such  modification  as  is  necessary  to  con- 
form it  to  this  code  or  to  render  it  intelligible  in  English. 

E.  The  name  of  a  [)erson  should  not  be  ai)i)li(Hl  to  a  variety  during 
his  life  without  his  express  consent.  The  name  of  a  deceased  horticul- 
turist should  not  be  so  applied,  except  through  formal  action  by  some 
competent  horticultural  body,  preferably  that  with  which  he  was  most 
closely  connected. 

F.  The  use  of  such  general  terms  as  seedhng,  hybrid,  pippin,  pear- 
main,  beurre,  rare-ripe,  damson,  etc.,  is  not  admissible. 

(i.   The  use  of  a  possessive  noun  as  a  name  is  not  admissible. 

H.   The  use  of  a  number,  either  singly  or  attached  to  a  word,  should 


RULES  FOR  NAMING   FRUITS  185 

be  considered  only  as  a  temporary  expedient  while  the  variety  is  under- 
going preliminary  test. 

I.  In  applying  the  various  provisions  of  this  rule  to  an  existing 
varietal  name  which  has  through  long  usage  become  firmly  embedded 
in  American  pomological  literature,  no  change  shall  be  made  which 
will  involve  loss  of  identity. 

Rule  3.  In  the  full  and  formal  citation  of  a  variety  name,  the  name 
of  the  author  who  first  published  it  shall  be  given. 

Publication. — Rule  4.  Publication  consists  (1)  in  the  distribution 
of  a  printed  description  of  the  variety  named,  giving  the  distinguish- 
ing characters  of  fruit,  tree,  etc.,  or  (2)  in  the  publication  of  a  new 
name  for  a  variety  which  is  properly  described  elsewhere ;  such  pubH- 
cations  to  be  made  in  any  book,  bulletin,  report,  trade  catalogue,  or 
periodical,  providing  the  issue  bears  the  date  of  its  publication  and  is 
generally  distributed  among  nurserymen,  fruit-growers,  and  horticul- 
turists ;  or  (3)  in  certain  cases  the  general  recognition  of  a  name  for 
a  propagated  variety  in  a  community  for  a  number  of  years  shall 
constitute  publication  of  that  name. 

A.  In  determining  the  name  of  a  variety  to  which  two  or  more  names 
have  been  given  in  the  same  publication  that  which  stands  first  shall 
have  precedence. 

Revision.  —  Rule  5.  No  properly  published  variety  name  shall  be 
changed  for  any  reason  except  conflict  with  this  code,  nor  shall 
another  variety  be  substituted  for  that  originally  described  thereunder. 

Emblematic  Plants  and  Flowers 

State  floviers  adopted  by  the  vote  of  the  public  schools,  sometimes  by  the 
legislatures  (*),  sometimes  by  choice  of  the  people. 

Alabama Goldenrod 

Alaska         Forget-me-not 

Arkansas Apple  blossom 

California California  poppy  (Eschscholzia) 

Colorado Columbine 

Connecticut Mountain  laurel 

*  Delaware Peach  blossom 

Florida         Orange  blossom 

Idaho Syringa 

Illinois Violet 

Indiana Corn 

*  Iowa Rose 

Kansas ,     .     .     .  Sunflower 

Kentucky .'     .     .     .  Trumpet-flower 

Louisiana Magnolia 


186      TiiF.  jrnoixn  of  FAR}fs,  crops,  and  plants 


♦  Maine 

Maryland   . 

•  MirhiKun 
Minru\s«>tii 
Mississippi 
Mis.H<)uri 

•  Montana 

•  Nebraska 
Nevada 
New  Y(»rk 
North  Dakota 
Ohio        .      . 
Okhihoma  . 

*  Oregon 
Rh«Mle  Island 

State  tree 
iSouth  Dakota 
Tennessee   . 
Texas 
Utah       .      . 

♦  Vermont 
WashinRton 
W4\st  Virginia 
Wiseonsin  (State  tree) 


Pine  cone  and  tassel 
Goldenrod 
Apple  blossom 
Moccasin-flower 
Magnolia 
Golclenrod 

Bitter-root  (Lewiaio) 
(k)ldenrod 
Sage-brush 
Rose 

Wild  rose 
Scarlet  carnation 
Mistletoe 

Oregon  grape  {Berheria) 
Violet 
Maple 

Pasque  {Anemone) 
Daisy 

Blue  bonnet 
Sego  lily  {Calochortus) 
Red  clover 
Rhododendron  (R.  Calif ornicum) 
Rhododendron 
Maple 


Nalinnal  and  regional  flowers 

Canada ?^y\iiar  maple 

China Narcissus 

Egypt  Lotus  {Aymplijca  Lotus) 

England    '.     '. Rose 

France Fleur-de-lis  (Ins) 

dermany Corn-flower  {Ccntaurca  Cyanus) 

Greece  (Athena) Violet  _   .,  ,. 

Ireland Shamrock     (Tnfohum,    usually 

T.  repens) 

Italv Lily 

Japan Chrysanthemum 

Nova  Scotia Mayflower  {Epigaa) 

Prussia Linden 

Saxonv Mignonette 

Scotland Thistle 

Spain Pomegranate 

Wales Leek 

Party  flowers 

Beaconsfield's  follnwcra Primrose 

Bonapartists Violet 

Orleanists White  daisy 

C;hibellines White  lily 

Cuelph.H Red  lily 

Prince  of  Orange The  f)range 

I*arnellite- Ivy 

Jacobites White  rose 


CHAPTER  XI 

Greenhouse  and  Window-Garden  Work 

Greenhouse  production  has  now  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  exclusive 
amateurism,  and  has  become  a  recognized  form  of  agriculture.  It  is 
farming  under  glass.  The  area  is  small,  but  the  investment  is  high  and 
the  skill  is  great. 

Greenhouse  Practice 

Potting  earth. 

Loam  (decomposed  sod),  leaf-mold,  rotted  farm-yard  manure,  peat, 
and  sand  afford  the  main  requirement  of  the  plants  most  commonlj'' 
cultivated.  Seedlings,  and  young  stock  generally,  are  best  suited  by  a 
light  mixture,  such  as  one  part  each  of  loam,  leaf-mold,  and  sand  in 
equal  parts.  The  older  plants  of  vigorous  growth  like  a  rich,  heavy 
compost,  formed  of  equal  parts  of  loam  and  manure ;  and  a  sandy, 
lasting  soil,  made  up  of  two  parts  each  of  peat  and  loam  to  one  part  of 
sand,  is  the  most  desirable  for  slow-growing  sorts.  A  little  lumpy 
charcoal  should  be  added  to  the  compost  for  plants  that  are  to  remain 
any  great  length  of  time,  say  a  year,  in  the  same  pot.  The  best  condi- 
tion of  soil  for  potting  is  that  intermediate  state  between  wet  and  dry. 
Sphagnum  (moss),  or  fibrous  peat  and  sphagnum  in  mixture  and 
chopped,  should  be  used  for  orchids  and  other  plants  of  similar  epiphytal 
character. 

Cow-dung  is  highly  prized  by  many  gardeners  for  use  in  potting  soil. 
It  is  stored  under  cover  and  allowed  to  remain  until  dry,  being  turned 
several  times  in  the  meantime  to  pulverize  it.  Manure  water  is  made 
either  from  this  dried  excrement  or  from  the  fresh  material.  When 
made  from  the  fresh  material,  the  manure- water  should  be  made  weaker 
than  in  the  other  case. 

187 


188  GREENHOUSE   AXD    WINDOW-GARDEN    WORK 

Suggestions  for  potting  plants. 

The  pots  should  be  jierfcctly  dry  and  clean,  and  well  drained.  How- 
ever one-sided  a  plant  may  be,  it  is  advantageous  to  have  the  main 
stem  as  near  the  center  of  the  pot  as  possible,  and  the  potted  plant  is 
usually  in  the  best  position  when  perfectly  erect.  Soft-wooded  plants 
of  rapid  growth,  such  as  coleus,  geraniums,  fuchsias,  and  begonias, 
thrive  most  satisfactorily  when  the  soil  is  loose  rather  than  hard  about 
the  roots.  Ferns  should  have  it  moderately  firm,  and  hard- wooded 
stock,  azaleas,  ericas,  acacias,  and  the  like,  should  be  potted  firmly. 
In  repotting  plants,  more  especially  those  of  slow  growth,  the  ball  of 
soil  and  roots  should  never  be  sunk  to  any  great  extent  below  the 
original  level,  and  it  is  always  preferable  to  pot  a  plant  twice,  or  even 
three  times,  rather  than  place  it  in  a  pot  too  large. 

Watering  greenhouse  and  window  plants. 

Plants  cannot  be  satisfactorily  watered  just  so  many  times  a  day, 
week,  or  month.  All  plants  should  be  watered  when  necessary  — 
when  they  are  dry.  This  is  indicated  by  a  tendency  to  flag  or  wilt,  or 
by  the  hollow  sound  of  the  pots  when  tapped.  The  latter  is  the  safest 
sign,  as,  after  a  prolonged  period  of  dull  weather,  many  plants  wilt  on 
exposure  to  bright  sunshine,  although  still  wet  at  the  roots.  But  a 
growing  plant  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  so  dry  as  to  wilt,  nor 
should  the  soil  ever  reach  a  condition  as  dry  as  powder.  This  is  a  condi- 
tion, however,  which  is  essential  to  some  plants,  more  particularl}'-  the 
bulbous  and  tuberous  kinds,  during  their  resting  period.  Incessant 
dribbling  should  be  avoided;  water  thoroughly,  and  be  done  with  it 
until  the  plants  are  again  dry.  Plants  under  glass  should  not  be 
sprayed  overhead  while  the  sun  is  shining  hot  and  full  upon  them.  The 
evening  is  the  best  time  of  the  day  for  watering  in  summer,  and  morn- 
ing in  winter.  In  watering  with  liquid  manure,  the  material  should 
not  come  in  contact  with  the  foliage.  Plants  recently  potted  should 
not  be  watered  heavily  at  the  roots  for  a  week  or  ten  days ;  spray  them 
fr('(iiu'ntly  overhead. 

Li(piid  manure  for  greenhouses. 

Most  of  the  artificial  fertilizers  may  be  used  in  the  preparation  of 
TKiuid  manure,  but  a  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  their  strength  and  char- 


WINDOW-GARDEN  PLANTS  189 

acter  lessens  their  value  in  the  minds  of  gardeners.  Clean  cow  manure, 
which  varies  little  in  stimulating  property,  is  considered  by  gardeners 
to  be  the  safest  and  most  reliable  material  to  use  for  a  liquid  fertilizer. 
A  bushel  measure  of  the  solid  manure  to  100  gallons  of  water  makes  a 
mixture  which  can  be  used  with  beneficial  results  on  the  tenderest 
plants ;  and  for  plants  of  rank  growth  the  compound  may  be  gradually 
increased  to  thrice  that  strength  with  safety.  Soot  may  be  added  with 
advantage,  using  it  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  10  parts  of  the  manure.  The 
mixture  should  stand  for  a  few  days,  being  stirred  occasionally,  before 
application. 

Lists  of  Plants 

Twenty-jive  plants  adapted  to  window-gardens 


Adiantum  cuneatum,  particularly  the     Fuchsia,  varieties, 

form  known  as  A.  gracillimum.  Mahernia  odorata. 

Aloysia  citriodora.  Myrtus  communis. 
Begonia  metallica,  and  many  others.         Pelargoniums,  in  variety. 

Cocos  Weddelliana.  Primrose,  Chinese. 

Ficus  elastica.  Pteris  serrulata. 

Freesia  refracta.  Vallota  purpurea. 

BASKETS 

Epiphyllum  truncatum.  Saxifraga  sarmentosa,  beefsteak  gera- 

Fragaria  Indica.  nium. 

Fuchsia  procumbens.  Sedum  Sieboldii. 

Othonna  crassifolia  (O.  Capensis).  Tradescantia  zebrina,   wandering  Jew 

Oxalis  violacea.  {Zebrina  pendula). 

Pelargonium  peltatum. 

WATER 

Eichhornia  crassipes   (E.  speciosa).  Narcissus     Tazetta,     var.     orientalis. 

Hyacinths.  Chinese  sacred  lily. 

In  selecting  plants  for  a  window-garden  or  house  conservatory,  those 
plants  should  be  omitted  that  are  much  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
aphis  and  mealy-bug.  Amongst  the  common  plants  which  are  much 
infested  are  coleus,  German  ivy  (Senecio  scandens),  calla,  Vinca 
variegata,  Cyperus  alternifolius,  fuchsia,  cineraria,  and  carnation. 
Those  that  are  nearly  exempt  are  most  kinds  of  geraniums,  begonias, 
wandering  Jew,  and  most  ferns.  Palms  are  very  liable  to  scale  in- 
festation.    (For  insects,  see  p.  301.) 


190 


GREENHOUSE    AND    WIXDOV-GARDEN    WORK 


Vegetable-growing  under  glass 


Asparafjus 
Moans      .     . 
Cauliflower 

f'ucumbcr  . 


lyottupe  .     . 
Mushrooms 

Muskmolon 


Parsley  . 

P.-.is  .     . 

Ratiishos 
Rhubarb 

Spiniifh 
Tomato 


NtOHT 

Tem. 

ep 


45-55 
60-65 
50-55 


60-65 


45-50 
50-60 

65-70 

45-50 
45-50 

45  50 
45  50 

45-50 
60-65 


DAT 

Tem. 


60-70 
70-80 
60-65 

70-75 


55-65 
50-60 

70-85 


55-65 
55-65 

55-65 
55-60 

55-65 
75 


MATDRrrr 
rKOM  Seed 
OR  Roots 


3-4  wk. 
6-8  wk. 
4-5  mo. 

10-14  wk 


7-12  wk. 
6-8  wk. 

10-14  wk. 


8  wk. 
70-80  d. 

5-6  wk. 
3-5  wk. 

8-10  wk. 
4-5  mo. 


Advice 


Roots  are  taken  from  field,  3-5  years 
old  ;   use  only  strong  roots. 

Little  grown  commercially  and  then 
as  incidental  crop. 

Transplant  once  ;  give  abundance  of 
air ;  requires  nmch  water,  yet  good 
drainage.  Avoid  checking  growth 
of  plants.  Commonly  matured  un- 
der glass,  as  a  late  spring  crop. 

Often  follows  winter  tomatoes,  in 
ground  beds,  making  a  spring  and 
early  summer  crop.  Sometimes 
grown  on  benches.  There  are  two 
types  of  forcing  cucumbers,  the 
common,  or  White  Spine,  type  and 
the   English   or   frame   varieties. 

Grown  mostly  on  the  ground. 

Crow  under  benches,  or  in  cellars ; 
an  uncertain  crop. 

Not  conmionly  forced.  When  grown, 
usually  as  a  late  fall  or  late  spring 
crop. 

Transplant  in  the  fall  from  the  field, 
and  cut  back. 

Little  grown  under  glass,  as  the  yield 
is  light.  Must  be  off  before  hot 
weather  of  spring. 

Rapid  growth  should  be  secured ; 
use  no  old  maruire. 

Roots  dug  in  fall.  froz(Mi  and  planted 
under  benches  or  in  frames.  After 
cropping,  replant  in  field. 

Grown  as  an  incidental  or  secondary 
crop  ;  does  well  in  solid  beds. 

Transplant  into  pots,  hand  i)ollinate 
in  winter  and  dark  weather,  but 
most  growers  depend  on  shaking 
the  plants.  Now  widely  grown  in 
ground  beds. 


Beets,  cress,  sweet  herbs  (particularly  spearmint),  are  also  grown  under  glass. 


GREENHOUSE  PLANTS 


191 


Twenty-five  useful  aquatic  and  sub-aquatic  plants  for  outdoor  lise 


t  denotes  those  that  do  not  endure  the  winter  (tender). 


Acorus  gramineus,  variegated. 

Aponogeton  distachyum. 

Azolla  Caroliniana. 

Caltha  palustris. 

Cyperus  alternifolius ;   t. 

Eichhornia  crassipes  or  azurea  (prop- 
erly E.  speciosa) ;    t. 

Limnanthemum  Indicum ;    t. 

Limnanthemum   nymphoides. 

Limnocharis  Humboldtii  (Hydrocleys 
Commersonii). 

Myriophyllum  proserpinacoides ;   t. 

Nelumbium  (Nelumbo).  Many  species 
and  varieties.     Some  t. 

Nuphar  advena. 

Nymphisa.  Many  species  and  vari- 
eties.    Some  t. 


Ouvirandra      fenestralis      (Aponogeton 

fenestrale)  ;    t. 
Papyrus  (Cyperus  Papyrus)  ;   t. 
Pistia  Stratiotes ;    t. 
Pontederia  cordata. 
Sagittaria  Montevidensis ;   i. 
Salvinia  natans. 
Sarracenia  purpurea. 
Scirpus      Tabernaemontanus      zebrina 

(J uncus  effusus,  variegated). 
Trapa  natans. 
Typha  latifolia. 
Victoria  regia ;   t. 
Zizania  aquatica. 


Commercial  plants  and  flowers,  or  "florists^  plants 
The  following  are  chiefly  grown  by  florists  in  this  country ;  — 


Adiantum. 

Alyssum. 

Anemone. 

Antirrhinum 

Asparagus  plumosus. 

Aster,  China. 

Azalea. 

Begonia. 

Bougainvillea. 

Bouvardia. 

Calla. 

Carnation. 

Cattleya. 

Chrysanthemum. 

Cineraria. 

Coreopsis. 

Cyclamen. 

Cypripedium. 

Dahlia. 

Daisy  (Bellis  perennis). 

Deutzia. 

Dracena. 

Freesia. 

Gaillardia. 

Gardenia. 

Genista  (Cytisus). 

Gladiolus. 

Gypsophila. 

Helianthus. 


Heliotrope. 

Hyacinth. 

Hydrangea. 

Iris. 

Lilac. 

Lilium  Harrisii  (L.  longiflorum,  var. 
eximium). 

Lily  of  the  Valley. 

Marguerite,  or  Paris  Daisy  (Chrysan- 
themum frutescens,  and  C.  fcenicu- 
laceum). 

Mignonette. 

Narcissus. 

Nephrolepis  (fern). 

Nymphaea. 

Pansy. 

Peony. 

Phlox. 

Poinsettia. 

Rhododendron. 

Rose. 

Smilax  (Asparagus  medeoloides) . 

Spirea  (Astilbe). 

Stevia  (Piqueria  trinervia). 

Swainsona. 

Sweet  pea. 

Tuberose. 

Tulip. 

Violet. 


192        GRKKsnorsK  and  window-garden  work 

The  Heating  of  Greenhouses  (R.  C.  Carpenter) 
Methyls  oj  proportioning  radiating  surface  for  heating  of  greenhouses. 

RadiatiiiR  surface,  whether  from  steam  or  hot-water  pipes,  is  esti- 
mato<l  in  square  feet  of  exterior  surface.  All  projections,  ornaments, 
etc.,  on  the  exterior  of  i)ipes  or  radiators  are  counted  as  efficient  surface. 
Formerly,  cast-iron  |)ipe  of  al:)out  4  inches  in  diameter  was  used  almost 
altogether  for  greenhouse  work ;  it  is  still  used  to  some  extent  for  hot- 
water  heating,  but  the  great  majority  of  houses  are  now  piped  with 
wrought  iron  or  steel  pipe,  which  is  made  of  standard  size  and 
thickness,  and  is  a  regular  article  of  trade. 

The  heating  surfaec  in  a  boiler  or  hot  water  heater  is  that  portion  of 
the  boiler,  or  heater,  which  is  exposed  to  the  direct  heat  of  the  fire  or  of 
the  heated  gases. 

Grate  surface  is  the  number  of  square  feet  of  grate  in  the  boiler  or 
heater. 

In  estimating  the  heat  required  for  greenhouses,  the  area  expressed  in 
square  feet  of  glass  in  the  roof  and  walls  is  taken  as  the  basis  from  which 
computations  are  made.  Certain  rules  of  practice  have  been  adopted, 
and  appear  to  give  fairly  good  results  in  proportioning  radiating  sur- 
face, grate  surface,  and  heating  surface.  The  ratio  of  heating  surface 
to  grate  surface  in  heaters  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  coal  to  be 
burned  and  the  economy  desired.  The  more  heating  surface  provided 
per  unit  of  grate  surface,  the  higher  the  economy,  but  the  greater  the 
first  cost  of  the  heater.  The  usual  practice  in  large  boilers  is 
to  employ  40  square  feet  of  heating  surface  to  1  of  grate  surface 
for  hard  coal,  and  SO  feet  of  heating  surface  to  1  of  grate  surface  for 
soft  coal. 

In  small  cast-iron  heaters  the  proportion  of  heating  surface  to 
gratr  is  frccjuently  one-third  to  one-fourth  that  given  above. 

If  the  gre(«nhous('  is  maintained  at  70°  when  the  outside  tempera- 
ture is  zero,  one  square  foot  of  radiation  will  supply  5  square  feet  of 
gla.ss  surface,  if  steam  is  used  at  5  pounds  pressure,  or  4  square  feet 
of  gla-ss  surface  if  water  at  a  temperature  of  180°  F.  is  used.  The 
following  table  gives  the  ratio  of  radiation  to  glass  surface  for  various 
temperatures :  — 


GREENHOUSE  HEATING 


193 


(A)  Table  showing  relation  of  glass  surface,  radiating  surface,  and  heating 

surface  ^ 


HOT-TVATER   HeATING 

Steam  Heating 

Temperature  of  radiating  surface     .     .     . 

160° 

180° 

200° 

(5  lbs.        (1011)8. 

Prissurc)  Pressure) 

220°         240° 

Square  feet  of  glass  for  1  square 
foot  radiating  surface. 

Temp.  100°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    90°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    80°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    70°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    60°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    50°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    40°  F.  above  surrounding  air  . 
Temp.    30°  F.  above  surrounding  air  .     . 

Radiation  per  pound  of  coal 

Heat  units  given  off  1  square  foot  radiating 
surface  B.T.U.2  for  70°  Temp.  diff.    .     . 

2.3 
2.55 
2.75 
3.2 
3.8 
4.5 
5.7 
7.7 
56.2 

100 

2.7 
3.0 
3.38 
4.0 
4.5 
5.4 
6.7 
9.0 
47.7 

190 

3.2 

3.55 

4.0 

4.5 

5.25 

6.4 

8.0 

10.6 

40.9 

220 

3.5 
3.9 
4.37 
5.0 

5.85 
7.0 
8.7 
11.6 
40 

225 

4.2 
4.66 
5.25 
6.0 
7.0 
8.4 
10.5 
14.0 
36 

250 

For  instance,  to  maintain  the  temperature  of  a  greenhouse  70° 
at  zero  weather,  there  should  be  1  square  foot  of  radiating  sur- 
face for  4.0  square  feet  of  glass  for  hot-water  heating,  in  which  the 
maximum  temperature  of  the  water  is  maintained  at  180°;  or 
there  should  be  1  square  foot  of  radiating  surface  for  5  square  feet  of 
glass  for  low-pressure  (under  5  pounds)  steam.  These  numbers  are 
given  somewhat  greater  by  some  authorities,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  if  the  house  is  not  much  exposed,  higher  proportions  will  give 
satisfactory  results. 

The  preceding  table  gives  more  exact  values  for  these  quantities, 
and  will  be  found  to  accord  with  the  best  practice  in  heating  of  green- 
houses, either  by  steam  or  hot  water.  Each  pound  of  coal  burned  on  the 
grate  will  transfer  to  the  water  or  steam  in  the  heater  about  9000 
B.T.U  As  the  amount  of  coal  consumed  can  be  varied  with  the 
draft  or  firing  conditions,  it  is  evident  that  no  fixed  rule  can  be  given 
for  the  proportion  of  grate  to  radiation. 

1  From  Carpenter's  work  on  "Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings." 

2  British  Thermal  Unit,  —  heat  required  to  raise  1  lb.  of  water  1  degree. 

o 


194 


QREENHOUSE  AND    WINDOW-GARDEN    WORK 


Size  of  pipes  connecting  radiating  surface  and  the  boiler  or  heater. 

Various  ciiipirical  rules  hiivo  bcoii  giv(;n  for  i^roixjrtioning  main- 
supply  ami  rolurn  pipes,  which  have  i)rov(ul  ([uito  satisfactory  in 
practice.  Cleorgc  A.  l^abcock  gives  the  following  rule,  which  will  be 
found  very  satisfactory  for  greenhouse  heating,  whether  with  low- 
pressure  steam  or  with  water:  — 

The  .liameter  of  main  jiipe  leading  to  the  radiating  surface  should 
be  equal  in  inches  to  0.1  the  square  root  of  radiating  surface  in 
8(iuare  feet.  The  main  pipes  should  not  be  less  than  1.}  inches  in 
diameter,  rctv.rn  pipes  for  water  heating  the  same  size  as  mains,  and, 
for  steam  heating,  one  size  less  than  mains,  but  never  loss  than  f  inch 
in  diameter.  The  following  table  shows  the  radiating  surface  sup- 
plied by  various  sizes  of  main  pipe. 

(,B)      Size  or  Pipu^  Radiating  Surface  Supplied 

1  '4  inches 155  square  feet 

ly-i  inchea 225  square  feet 

2  inches 400  square  feet 

2^  inches 620  square  feet 

3  inches 900  square  feet 

'.V -2  inches 1220  s(iuare  feet 

4  inches IGOO  square  feet 

(O  Table  of  dimensions  of  standard  wrought-iron  pipe —  For  steam 
and  water 

1  inch  and  below,  hutt-welded  ;  proved  to  300  pounds  per  square  inch,  hydraulic 
pressure. 

1*4  inch  and  al)<)vc,  lap-welded;  proved  to  500  pounds  per  square  inch,  hy- 
draulic pressure. 

Table  of  Standard  Sizes 


Internal 
Area  in  One 
Lineal  Lnch 

u 

m 

0S2 

Length  of 
Pipe  per 
Square  Foot 
OF  Radiating 
Surface-Feet 

Number 
Square  Feet 
IN  One 
Lineal  Foot 
OF  Pipe 

No.   OF 

Threads  per 
Inch  of 
Screw 

H 

0.3048 

2.652 

4.502 

0.221 

0.0102 

14 

.^ 

0.5333 

3.299 

3.637 

0.274 

0.0230 

14 

1 

0.8627 

4.134 

2.903 

0.344 

0.0408 

UH 

\\i 

1.496 

5.215 

2.301 

0.434 

0.0638 

nil 

i^ 

2.038 

5.069 

2.010 

0.497 

0.0918 

iiH 

2 

3.355 

7.461 

1.611 

0.621 

0.1632 

iiH 

?^ 

4.7H3 

9.032 

1.328 

0.752 

0.2550 

8 

3 

7.368 

10.99 

1.091 

0.916 

0.3673 

8 

34 

9.H.37 

12.56 

0.955 

1.044 

0.4998 

8 

4 

12.730 

14.13 

0.849 

1.178 

0.6528 

8 

i^ 

15.939 

15.70 

0.765 

1.309 

0.8263 

8 

5 

19.990 

17.47 

0.629 

1.656 

1 .0200 

8 

GREENHOUSE  HEATING 


195 


The  preceding  table  gives  the  standard  sizes  and  principal  dimensions 
3f  wrought-iron  pipe.  From  this  table  the  amount  required  for  a 
given  amount  of  radiating  surface  can  be  readily  computed.  This  pipe 
can  be  purchased  of  any  dealer. 

To  design  heating  plant. 

1.  Find  radiating  surface  by  dividing  area  of  glass  in  square  feet 
by  results  in  table  A.  Hot  water  pipes  can  be  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  180°  F.  if  desired. 

2.  Find  the  size  of  grate  by  multiplying  amount  of  radiating  surface 
by  number  of  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour  divided 
by  "  radiation  per  pound  "  in  table  A. 

3.  Find  size  of  main  pipes  by  table  B,  using  size  next  larger  when 
radiating  surface  comes  between  numbers  given.  It  is  usually  better 
to  have  several  main  and  return  pipes,  and  divide  the  radiating  surface 
in  sections. 

Other  Information  relating  to  Heating 

Diameters  for  cylindrical  chimney-flues,  for  given  heights  and  boiler 
capacities  (R.  C.  Carpenter) 

Four-cornered  chimneys  are  considered  to  be  equivalent  to  cylindrical  chim- 
neys when  the  sides  equal  the  diameter. 


Height  of  Chimney  in 
Feet 

30 

40 

50 

60 

80 

100 

=   r   Sq.   Ft. 

§  j      Rated 
S  j      Boiler 
«2  [Capacity 

u    r   Sq.  Ft. 
S  J     Rated 
1  1     Boiler 
^  L  Capacity 

Diameter 

in 

Inches 

Diameter 

in 

Inches 

Diameter 

in 

Inches 

Diameter 

in 

Inches 

Diameter 

in 

Inches 

Diameter 

in 

Inches 

250 

375 

7.0 

500 

750 

9.2 

8.8 

8.2 

8.0 

750 

1,125 

10.8 

10.2 

9.6 

9.3 

8.8 

8.5 

1,000 

1,500 

12.0 

11.4 

10.8 

10.5 

10.0 

9.5 

1,500 

2,250 

14.4 

13.4 

12.8 

12.4 

11.5 

11.2 

2,000 

3,000 

16.3 

15.2 

14.5 

14.0 

13.2 

12.6 

3,000 

4,500 

18.5 

18.2 

17.2 

16.6 

15.8 

15.0 

4,000 

6,000 

22.2 

20.8 

19.6 

19.0 

17.8 

17.0 

5,000 

7,500 

24.6 

23.0 

21.6 

21.0 

19.4 

18.6 

6,000 

9,000 

26.8 

25.0 

23.4 

22.8 

21.2 

20.2 

7,000 

10,500 

28.8 

27.0 

25.5 

24.4 

23.0 

21.6 

8,000 

12,000 

30.6 

28.6 

26.8 

26.0 

24.2 

23.4 

9,000 

13,500 

32.4 

30.4 

28.4 

27.4 

25.6 

24.4 

10,000 

15,000 

34.0 

32.0 

30.0 

28.6 

27.0 

25.4 

196 


(jREKyilOL  SE   Ayn    \\  ISDOW-GARDEy    WORK 


Effects  of  wind  in  cooling  glass  (Leuchars) 


Velocity  of  Wind 
per  hour 

li.JG  miles 

5. IS  miles 

6.54  miles 

8.86  miles 

10.90  miles 

13.36  miles 

17.»7  miles 

20.45  miles 

24.54  miles 

27.27  miles 


Time  Required  to  lower  Temperature 
from  120°  to  100°  F. 

2  :  58  minutes 
2  :  16  minutes 
1:91  minutes 
1  :  06  minutes 
1  :  50  minutes 
1  :  25  minutes 
1  :  08  minutes 
1  :  00  minutes 

:  91  minutes 

:  81  minutes 


Table  of  radiation  for  glass  (Dean  0 


Steam 

Hot  Water 

Table  of 

amount  of  steam  radiating  8ur- 

Table  of  amount  of  hot-water  radiating  surface 

face  necessary  to  heat  a  given  amount 

necessary  to 

heat  a 

given    amount 

of  glass 

of   r\slss 

exposure    to   various   tempera- 

exposure    to 

various 

temijeratures 

m    zero 

tures  in  zero  weather. 

weather. 

Number  of  square  feet  of 

Number  of 

square  feet  of  radiation 

Square 

radiation  required  at 

Square 

required  at 

t^ioi 

feet  of 
exposure 

exposure 

40" 

45» 

50» 

60» 

70» 

40» 

45° 

50° 

60° 

70° 

25 

l\ 

3f 

4i 

5 

25 

4S 

5 

6] 

7i 

8J 

50 

7* 

8, 

10 

50 

8 

10 

13 

14 

16 

75 

8 

9 

10 

13 

15 

75 

13 

15 

19 

21 

25 

100 

11 

13 

14 

17 

20 

100 

17 

20 

25 

29 

33 

200 

23 

25 

30 

33 

40 

200 

33 

40 

50 

57 

67 

300 

34 

38 

43 

50 

60 

300 

50 

60 

75 

86 

100 

400 

45 

.50 

57 

67 

80 

400 

67 

80 

100 

114 

133 

.WO 

aa 

63 

72 

83 

100 

500 

83 

100 

125 

113 

167 

1.000 

112 

12.-, 

143 

167 

200 

1.000 

167 

200 

2.50 

286 

333 

2.000 

223 

2.50 

286 

333 

400 

2,000 

333 

400 

500 

572 

667 

3.000 

.334 

.375 

429 

.500 

600 

?..noo 

.500 

600 

7.50 

857 

1.000 

4.000 

44.') 

500 

.571 

667 

8(X) 

4.000 

667 

SOO 

1 .000 

1.143 

1.333 

5.000 

h:A\ 

625 

714 

833 

1.000 

5,000 

833 

1,000 

1.2,50 

1.429 

1.667 

10.000 

1112 

12.50 

1429 

1667 

2.000 

10.000 

1667 

2,000 

2.500 

2.857 

3.333 

20.000 

222.3 

2.500 

2857 

3333 

4.000 

20.000 

3333 

4.000 

5,000 

5.714 

6.667 

.30.000 

.3334 

37.50 

42S6 

.5(X)0 

6.000 

30.000 

5000 

(),()()() 

7,. 500 

8.573 

10.000 

40.000 

4445 

.50(K) 

.5714 

6667 

8.000 

40.000 

6667 

S, ()()() 

10, (too 

11.429 

13.333 

50.000 

.W.'ie 

6250 

7143 

8333 

10,000 

50,000 

8333 

10, ()()() 

1 2,. 500 

14.286 

16.667 

From  Dean's  "  Greenhouse  Heating."  by  permission  of  "  Domestic  Engineering.' 


GREENHOUSE  HEATING 


1% 


Radiating  surface  of  pipes  of  different  lengths  and  diameters 


ih 

%  In. 

1  In. 

IV4  In. 

IV2IN. 

2  In. 

2V2  In. 

3  In. 

31^  In. 

4  In. 

5s- 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

Pipe 

10 

2.7 

3.5 

4.3 

4.9 

6.2 

7.5 

9.1 

10.5 

11.8 

11 

3.0 

3.8 

4.8 

5.4 

6.8 

8.3 

10.0 

11.6 

13.0 

12 

3.3 

4.1 

5.2 

5.9 

7.5 

9.0 

11.0 

12.6 

14.1 

13 

3.6 

4.5 

5.6 

6.4 

8.1 

9.8 

11.9 

13.7 

15.3 

14 

3.8 

4.8 

6.1 

6.9 

8.7 

10.5 

12.8 

14.7 

16.5 

15 

4.1 

5.2 

6.5 

7.4 

9.3 

11.3 

13.7 

15.8 

17.6 

16 

4.4 

5.5 

6.9 

7.9 

10.0 

12.0 

14.6 

16.9 

18.8 

17 

4.7 

5.9 

7.4 

8.4 

10.6 

12.8 

15.5 

17.9 

20.0 

18 

5.0 

6.2 

7.8 

8.9 

11.2 

13.5 

16.5 

19.0 

21.2 

19 

5.2 

6.6 

8.3 

9.4 

11.8 

14.3 

17.4 

20.0 

22.3 

20 

5.5 

6.9 

8.7 

9.9 

12.5 

15.0 

18.3 

21.1 

23.5 

21 

5.8 

7.3 

9.1 

10.4 

13.0 

15.8 

19.2 

22.1 

24.7 

22 

6.0 

7.6 

9.6 

10.9 

13.7 

16.5 

20.2 

23.2 

25.9 

23 

6.3 

8.0 

10.0 

11.3 

14.3 

17.3 

21.1 

24.3 

27.0 

24 

6.6 

8.3 

10.4 

11.9 

14.9 

18.0 

22.0 

25.3 

28.2 

25 

6.9 

8.6 

10.9 

12.3 

15.6 

18.8 

22.9 

26.3 

29.3 

26 

7.2 

9.0 

11.3 

12.8 

16.2 

19.5 

23.8 

27.4 

30.5 

27 

7.4 

9.4 

11.7 

13.3 

16.8 

20.3 

24.7 

28.5 

31.7 

28 

7.7 

9.7 

12  2 

13.8 

17.4 

21.0 

25.6 

29.6 

32.9 

29 

8.0 

10.0 

12.'6 

14.3 

18.0 

21.8 

26.6 

30.6 

34.1 

30 

8.3 

10.4 

13.0 

14.8 

18.7 

22.5 

27.5 

31.6 

35.3 

31 

8.5 

10.7 

13.5 

15.3 

19.3 

23.3 

28.4 

32.7 

36.4 

32 

8.8 

11.1 

13.9 

15.8 

19.9 

24.1 

29.3 

33.7 

37.6 

33 

9.1 

11.4 

14.3 

16.3 

20.5 

24.8 

30.2 

34.8 

38.8 

34 

9.4 

11.7 

14.7 

16.8 

21.2 

25.6 

31.1 

35.8 

40.0 

35 

9.6 

12.1 

15.2 

17.3 

21.8 

26.3 

32.0 

36.9 

41.1 

36 

9.9 

12.5 

15.6 

17.8 

22.4 

27.0 

33.0 

38.0 

42.3 

37 

10.2 

12.8 

16.1 

18.3 

23.0 

27.8 

33.9 

39.0 

43.5 

38 

10.5 

13.2 

16.5 

18.8 

23.7 

28.5 

34.8 

40.1 

44.6 

39 

10.7 

13.5 

16.9 

19.3 

24.3 

29.3 

35.7 

41.1 

45.8 

40 

11.0 

13.8 

17.4 

19.8 

24.9 

30.1 

36.6 

42.2 

47.0 

411 

11.3 

14.2 

17.8 

20.5 

25.5 

30.8 

37.6 

43.2 

48.2 

42 

11.6 

14.5 

18.2 

20.8 

26.1 

31.6 

38.5 

44.3 

49.4 

43 

11.8 

14.9 

18.7 

21.3 

26.8 

32.3 

39.4 

45.3 

50.6 

44 

12.1 

15.2 

19.1 

21.8 

27.4 

33.1 

40.3 

46.4 

51.7 

45 

12.4 

15.6 

19.5 

22.4 

28.0 

33.8 

41.2 

47.4 

52.9 

46 

12.7 

15.9 

20.0 

22.8 

28.6 

34.6 

42.2 

48.5 

54.0 

47 

12.9 

16.3 

20.4 

23.2 

29.2 

35.3 

43.0 

49.6 

55.2 

48 

13.2 

16.6 

20.8 

23.7 

29.9 

36.1 

43.9 

50.6 

56.4 

49 

13.5 

17.0 

21.3 

24.2 

30.5 

36.8 

44.8 

51.7 

57.6 

50 

13.8 

17.3 

21.7 

24.7 

31.1 

37.6 

45.8 

52.8 

58.7 

198 


GREENHOUSE   AND    WINDOW-GARDEN    WORK 


Method  for  finding  boiler  capacity  j or  cast-iron  pipe 

Table  showmn  how  to  Rct  at  the  amount  of  33i2-inch  cast-iron  pipe  necessary  to 
heat  KH'tniiouse  to  temperature  wanted,  when  outside  temperature  is  at  zero, 
Fahrenheit  (Lord  &  Hurnham  Co.) 

For  lU"*  Im'Iow  zero,  add  10  per  cent.  ;  for  20°  add  20  per  cent.,  and  so  on. 
For  70°  to  7o°  diviih'  stjuare  feet  of  jihiss  and  ecjuivalent  by  1.8. 
For  (jii°  to  70°  divide  .stiuare  feet  of  jila.s.s  and  etiuivaient  hy  2.28. 
For  00°  to  05°  divide  square  feet  of  gla.ss  and  equivaU-nt  l)y  2.62, 
For  55°  to  00°  divide  square  feet  of  glass  and  equivalent  by  3. 
For  50°  to  55°  divide  square  feet  of  glass  and  equivalent  by  3.46. 
For  45°  to  50°  divide  s(|uare  feet  of  glass  and  equivalent  by  4. 
For  40°  to  45°  diviile  .S(iuare  feet  of  glass  and  equivalent  by  4.67. 
For  35°  to  40°  divide  square  feet  of  glass  and  equivalent  by  5.5. 

For  2-inch  work,  use  same  table  and  same  example  and  multiply  the  amount 
of  3J»i-inch  pipe  obtained  by  1.08. 

In  proportioning  gla.ss  surface,  all  wall  surface  must  be  figured  in  ;  about  5 
feet  of  waJl  equals  1  foot  of  glass. 

Customary  temperatures  in  which  plants  are  grown  under  glass 


Asparagus  plumosus 
Azalea,  Indian       .... 
Bulbs  (hyacinth,  tulip,  etc.) 

Carnation 

Calla 

Chrysanthemum  .... 

Cineraria 

Cyclamen 

Ferns,  as  maiden  hair 

Lily  (Ea.ster) 

Lily  of  the  valley  (forcing) 

Palni.s.  house 

Primulas 

Rose 

Smilax 

Stocks     

Sweet  pea 

Violet 


Day 


Night 


70° 

60° 

65° 

50° 

60° 

45° 

60° 

50° 

70° 

60° 

55° 

45° 

65° 

50° 

65° 

50° 

75° 

60° 

65° 

55° 

90° 

90° 

75° 

60° 

65° 

50° 

65° 

55° 

60° 

50° 

65° 

50° 

60° 

50° 

50° 

40° 

Various  Estimates  and  Recipes 

Percentage  of  rays  of  light  reflected  from  glass  roofs  at  various  angles  of 
divergence  from  the  perpendicular  (Bouguer) 

1** 2.5  per  cent 

10° 2.5  per  cent 

20° 2.5  per  cent 

30° 2.7  per  cent 

40° 3.4  per  cent 

5^ 5.7  per  cent 

^^ 11.2  per  cent 

7<>^ 22.2  per  cent 

IJ^ 41.2  per  cent 

°^ 54.3  per  cent 


GREENHOUSE  FIGURES  199 

Angle  of  roof  for  different  heights  and  widths  of  house  (Taft) 


Height 

Feet 

4  Ft. 

5  Ft. 

6  Ft. 

7  Ft. 

8  Ft. 

9  Ft. 

Width 

o    / 

o    / 

Feet 

6 

33  21 

39  48 

45 

49  24 

53  8 

56  18 

7 

29  44 

35  32 

40  36 

45 

48  49 

52  07 

8 

26  33 

32 

36  52 

41  11 

45 

48  22 

9 

23  57 

29  3 

33  5 

37  52 

41  38 

45 

10 

21  48 

26  33 

30  58 

35 

38  39 

41  59 

11 

24  26 

28  36 

32  28 

36  2 

39  17 

12 

22  57 

26  33 

30  15 

33  41 

36  52 

13 

21  2 

24  47 

28  18 

31  36 

34  42 

14 

23  12 

26  34 

29  44 

32  44 

Among  greenhouse  builders,  32°  is  the  pitch  of  roof  that  has 
practically  been  established  for  all  houses  up  to  25  feet  in  width ; 
beyond  that  width,  26°  is  commonly  used  for  the  slope  or  pitch 
of  the  roof. 


Standard  flower-pots. 


American 


The  Society  of  American  Florists  has  adopted  a  standard  pot,  ia 
which  all  measurements  are  made  inside,  and  which  bears  a  rim  or 
shoulder  at  the  top.  The  breadth  and  depth  of  these  pots  are  the  same, 
so  that  they  "  nest  "  well. 

English.  —  Chiswick  Standards 


DiAM.  AT 

Top 

Depth 

Thimbles 

2 

23^ 

3 

4 

4^ 

6 

8H 

9H 
llM 
12 
13 
15 
18 

In. 
2 

Thumbs 

2H 

60's 

3M 

54's 

4 

48's 

5 

32's  ...        

6 

24's 

8 

16's  .  .      

9 

12's  .             

10 

8's              

11 

6's              .    

12 

4's              .    

13 

2's                   

14 

200  GREENHOUSE  AND    WINDOW-GARDEN    WORK 

To  prerent  boilers  from  filling  with  sediment  or  scale. 

(1)  Exercise  care  t(3  get  clean  water  ami  that  wliich  contains  little 
lime.  (2)  Hlow  it  out  often.  It  can  be  blown  out  a  little  every  day, 
and  occasionally  it  should  be  blown  off  entirely.  (3)  Put  slippery- 
elni  bark  in  the  boiler  tank.  Or,  if  slippery-elm  is  not  handy,  use 
|K)tato-i)eelinKs,  flax-seed,  oak-bark,  spent  tan,  or  coarse  sawdust.  (4) 
Put  in,  with  the  feed-water  or  otherwise,  a  small  quantity  of  good  mo- 
la^wes  (not  a  chemical  sirup),  say  one-half  to  one  pint  in  a  week,  de- 
pending upon  the  size  of  boiler.  This  will  remove  and  prevent 
incrustation  without  damage  to  the  boiler.  These  vegetable  sub- 
stances prevent,  in  a  measure,  by  mechanical  means,  the  union  of  the 
particles  of  lime  into  incrustations. 

To  prepare  paper  and  cloth  for  hotbed  sash. 

1.  Use  a  sash  without  bars,  and  stretch  wires  or  strings 
across  it  to  serve  as  a  rest  for  the  paper.  Procure  stout  but 
thin  manila  wrapping-paper,  and  paste  it  firmly  on  the  sash  with 
fresh  flour  paste.  Dry  in  a  w^arm  place,  and  then  wipe  the  paper 
with  a  damp  sponge  to  cause  it  to  stretch  evenly.  Dry  again,  and 
then  apply  boiled  linseed  oil  to  both  sides  of  the  paper,  and  dry 
again  in  a  wami  place, 

2.  Saturate  cloth  or  tough,  thin  manila  paper  with  pure,  raw  lin- 
seed oil. 

3.  Dissolve  IJ  pounds  white  soap  in  one  quart  water;  in  another 
quart  dissolve  1 1  ounces  gum  arable  and  5  ounces  glue.  Mix  the  two 
li(iuids,  warm,  and  soak  the  paper,  hanging  it  up  to  dr3\  Used  mostly 
for  paiH'r. 

4.  3  |)ints  i)ale  linseed  oil ;  1  ounce  sugar  of  lead ;  4  ounces  white 
rosin.  ( iriiid  and  mix  the  sugar  of  lead  in  a  little  oil,  then  add  the  other 
materials  and  heat  in  an  iron  kettle.  Apply  hot  with  a  brush.  Used 
U)T  nmslin. 

Paint  for  hot-water  pipes. 

Mix  lampblack  with  boiled  oil  and  turpentine.  It  is  harmless  to 
plants. 


GREENHOUSE  RECIPES  201 

Liquid  putty  for  glazing. 

Take  equal  parts,  by  measure,  of  boiled  oil,  putty,  and  white  lead. 
Mix  the  putty  and  oil,  then  add  the  white  lead.  If  th?  mixture  be- 
comes too  thick,  add  turpentine.     Apply  with  a  putty-bulb. 

Paint  for  shading  greenhouse  roofs. 

Make  a  paint  of  ordinary  consistency  of  white  lead  and  naphtha.  It 
is  removed  from  the  glass  by  the  use  of  a  scrubbing-brush.  Make  it  thin, 
or  it  is  hard  to  remove. 

Ordinary  lime  whitewash  is  good  for  temporary  use.  If  salt  is  added, 
it  adheres  better.     It  may  be  applied  with  a  spray  pump. 

To  keep  flower-pots  clean. 

When  the  pots  are  cleaned,  soak  them  a  few  hours  in  ammoniacal 
carbonate  of  copper  (recipe,  page  255).  Soak  them  about  once  a  year. 
This  fungicide  kills  the  green  alga  upon  the  pots,  and  prevents  a  new 
growth  from  appearing. 


CHAPTER  XII 

Forestry  and  Timber 

Forestry  is  the  raising  of  timber  crops.  It  is  not  the  planting  of 
shade  trees  or  ornamental  trees,  or  even  of  groves,  but  the  planting 
and  rearing  of  forests.  The  primary  product  of  the  forest  is  timber; 
usually  the  timber  is  sawed  into  boards,  known  collectively  in  North 
America  as  lumber  (lumber  is  properly  and  differently  used  in  Eng- 
land) ;  some  timber  is  used  for  fire-wood,  some  for  wood-pulp,  and 
some  for  other  uses.  In  the  trades,  timber  usually  means  the 
squared  or  heavy  sawed  product  used  in  framework. 

Planting  Notes 
Nursery  planting-table  for  forest  trees  (Farmer's  Bulletin) 


Species 

When  to 

COLLECT 

Seeds 

How  TO   STORE 

Seeds 

o 

Eli 

When  to 

PLANT 

Seeds 

0. 

Spacing  of 

Seeds  in 

Rows 

§2g 

In. 

In. 

Aah.  green  .     . 

Oct. 

Bury  in  sand 

35-50 

Spring 

3^ 

Scatter  thickly 

6-9 

Ash.  white  .     . 

" 

" 

35-50 

*' 

1^ 

" 

6-10 

Ba.sswood    .      . 

Sept.  or  Oct. 

Sow  at  once 

5-50 

Fall 

/4 

" 

6-12 

Beech      .     .     . 

Fall 

Bury  in  sand 

70-80 

Early  spring 

H 

2  in.  apart 

3-6 

Butternut  • 

Sept.  or  Oct. 

" 

75-80 

" 

1 

3  to  6  in.  apart 

10-18 

Box  elder     .     . 

" 

40-60 

Spring 

H 

Touching       in 
rows 

10-14 

Catalpa,  hardy 

Oct.  or  Nov. 

Cool,  dry  place 

40-75 

" 

1 

Yi  in.  apart 

14-30 

Cherry,  black  . 

AuR.  orSept. 

Bury  in  sand 

75-80 

" 

1 

2  to  3  in.  apart 

4-6 

Coffee  tree. 

Sept.  or  Oct.  Cool,  dry  place. 

70-75 

" 

1 

" 

3-6 

Kentucky 

or  bury  in  sand 

Cottonwood  »  . 

June  or  July 

Sow  at  once 

75-95 

Summer 

H 

1  in.  apart 

20-30 

Elm.  Hiippery  . 

May  or  June 

" 

50-75 

Late  spring 

h 

Scatter  thickly 

15-18 

Elm.  white  .      . 

" 

" 

50-75 

" 

h 

" 

5-10 

Harkberry  .      . 

Oct. 

Bury  in  sand 

70-80 

Spring 

1  to  2  in.  apart 

6-12 

Hickory. pignut* 

Sept.  or  Oct.  ! 

50-75 

1-2 

3  to  6  in.  apart 

2-6 

Hickon,'.   shafc- 

hark  '  .      .      . 

Hickory,  shell- 

" 

50-75 

" 

1-2 

2-6 

.. 

.. 

60-75 

.. 

1-2 

.. 

2-6 

bark    .     .     . 

>  Difficult  to  transplant  on  account  of  tap  root.      Advisable  to  sow  seeds  in  permanent 
sites  in  field  whenever  possible. 

*  Easily  grown  from  cuttings.      Not  necessary  or  advisable  to  attempt  growing  from  seed. 

202 


FOREST  NURSERY 


203 


Nursery  planting-table  for  forest  trees  —  Continued 


Species 

When  to 

COLLECT 

How  TO  STORE 

Seeds 

Q 

h  1^  a 

m 

When  to 

PLANT 

4 
11 

Spacing  of 
Seeds  in 

B  «  J 

Seeds 

M-S 

Seeds 

Rows 

r;^"  w 

^po 

bS^ 

In. 

In. 

Locust,  black  . 

Oct. 

Cool,  dry  place, 
or  bury  in  sand 

50-57 

Spring 

1 

2  to  3  in.  apart 

18-20 

Locust,  honey  . 

" 

" 

50-75 

Fall  or  spring 

^ 

" 

6-14 

Maple,  red  .     . 
Maple,  silver  . 

May  or  June 

Sow  at  once 

25-60 
25-50 

Late  spring 

1 

]/i  in.  apart 

6-10 
12-20 

Maple,  sugar  . 

Oct. 

Sow  at  once,  or 
bury  in  sand 

30-50 

Fall  or  spring 

1 

" 

6-12 

Mulberry,  Rus- 
sian    .     .     . 
Oak,  bur  1  .     . 

July  or  Aug. 

Cool,  dry  place 

75-95 

Spring 

'A 

Scatter  thickly 

8-10 

Sept.  or  Oct. 

Sow  at  once,  or 

75-95 

Fall  or  spring 

IH 

3  to  6  in.  apart 

5-9 

bury  m  sand 

Oak,  red  1    .     . 

" 

*' 

75-95 

1^ 

6-20 

Oak,  white  i     . 

" 

75-95 

1^ 

]/2    1  in-  apart 

.5-9 

Osage  orange   . 

" 

Cool,  dry  place 

60-95 

Spring 

10-15 

Poplar,  yellow 

" 

Sow  at  once 

5-10 

Fall 

%    Scatter  thickly 

4-6 

Walnut,  black  i 

" 

Bury  in  sand 

75-80;Spring 

lHj3  to6in.  apart 

10-18 

For  number  of  tree  seeds  in  a  pound,  see  Chapter  V. 

1  Difficult  to  transplant  on  account  of  tap  root.  Advisable  to  sow  seeds  in  permanent 
sites  in  field  whenever  possible. 

Note  on  the  conifers  (MulforcD.  —  Whhepme,  Scotch  pine,  and  Norway  spruce  seed  should 
be  collected  as  soon  a  <  it  is  ripe,  m  September.  The  cone^  should  be  dried,  allowing  the 
seed  to  fall  out.  The  seed  should  be  stored  for  the  winter  in  bags  hung  in  a  dry,  cool 
place,  and  should  be  sown  thickly  in  the  spring,  covering  with  about  one-eighth  inch  of  soil. 
From  60  to  90  per  cent  of  the  seed  should  germinate.  One-year-old  seedlings  are  from  one 
and  one-halt  to  three  inches  high. 


Forest  planting  (Mulford). 

Forest  planting  is  usually  done  with  the  mattock  (grub  hoe).  A 
space  about  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  square  should  be  cleared  of  all 
growth,  and  a  hole  dug  in  the  middle  of  this  large  enough  to  receive 
the  roots  comfortably.  Another  method  is  to  plow  and  harrow  the 
ground,  mark  out  with  a  corn  marker,  and  simply  set  the  tree  in  a 
slit  pried  open  with  a  common  spade,  the  slit  being  closed  by  a  second 
thrust  of  the  spade.  By  the  former  method,  from  250  to  600  trees 
per  day  per  man  can  be  planted ;  by  the  latter  method,  from  800  to 
2000  trees.  Forest  trees  are  ordinarily  planted  4X4,5X5,  or6X6 
feet  (i.e.  about  2700,  1750,  and  1200  trees  per  acre,  respectively),  the 
closer  spacing  being  more  necessary  with  slow-growing  trees  and  on 
poor  soils. 


204 


FORESTRY   AND    TIMBER 


Hardness  of  Common  Commercial  Woods 


Shellhark  hickory 

.  100 

Hhick  walnut    .     .     . 

Go 

Yellow  pine      . 

.     54 

Pignut  hickory 

.     96 

Black  l)irch       .     .     . 

02 

Chestnut  . 

.     52 

Wliitc  oiik    . 

.     H4 

Yellow  oak  .... 

60 

Yellow  poplar  . 

.     51 

White  ash    . 

.     77 

White  elm    .     .     .     . 

58 

White  birch      . 

.     43 

S<Tul)  oak 

.     73 

Hard  maple      .     .     . 

56 

Butternut    .     . 

.     43 

R»m1  oak 

.     69 

Red  cedar    .... 

56 

White  pine 

.     30 

White  beech     . 

.     65 

Wild  cherry      .     .     . 
Forest  Yields 

55 

Approximate  time  required  to  produce  different  wood  crops  ([].  S.  Forest 

Service) 


Species 


Northern  forests 

Aspen 

Beech ' 

Birch,  paper 

Hemlock  ' 

Maple,  sugar  ' 

Pine,  reil 

Pine,  white 

Central  hardwood  forests 

Chestnut  * 

Oak.  red 

Oak,  white 

Poplar,  yellow 

Farm  timber  plantations 

Catalpa  * 

Larch,  European  *       .     .     .     . 

Mapl.'.  silver* 

Wab.ut.  black* 

Cottonwood  * 

Southern  forests 

Ash.  white 

Cottonwood 

Cypress , 

(iuni,  red , 

Pine,  loblolly 

Pine,  lonRleaf 

Pacific  coast  forests 

Fir,  Douglas 

Hemlock,  western 

I'ine,  sugar 

Pine,  western  yellow  .     .     . 
Redwood 


Me. 

Mich. 

Me. 

Mich. 

Mich. 

Wis. 

N.Y. 


Md. 
Ky. 
Ky. 
Tenn. 


III. 
111. 
111. 
111. 
Nebr. 

Ark. 

Miss. 

Md. 

S.C. 

S.C. 

S.C. 


Wash 

Wash 

Cal. 

Cal. 

Cal. 


OOQ,fc,  K 


-1   ^  O   O 


Years 
30 


32 
32 

20 
25 
35 


20 
23 

25 


40 
20 


25 

40 
25 
20 


Years 
40 
80 
50 

100 
90 
40 
40 

25 
30 
45 
45 


25 
35 

18 

30 
15 


25 


35 
50 
50 
35 
25 


S  u 

St 


Years 

60 
100 

130 

55 
55 

40 
45 

80 


45 

65 
30 
40 
75 

45 
70 
65 
45 
35 


rf   < 


Years 


lb 


55 


75 

55 
100 

50 


55 
50 


2S 
.  s 


Years 
200 


200 

100 

90 

85 
100 
160 
110 


85 
30 
90 
65 
70 
130 

75 

125 

100 

80 

70 


•  Species  tolerant  of  shade  which  should  show  better  results  in  second  growth. 

*  Speciea  grow  lug  under  favorable  conditions  when  measured. 


FOREST   YIELDS 


205 


Yield  of  white  -pine  per  acre  in  southern  New  Hampshire  (Margolin) 
Quality   I 


Age 

Number 
OF  Trees 

Basal 

Area 

Mean 
Height 

Volume 

Current 
Annual  In- 
crement 

Mean  An- 
nual In- 
crement 

Years 

Square  ft. 

Feet 

Cubic  ft. 

Cubic  ft. 

Cubic  ft. 

25 

2,430 

190 

33 

3,100 

124 

124 

30 

1,840 

215 

41 

4,367 

253 

145 

35 

1,250 

230 

48 

5.850 

296 

167 

40 

870 

238 

56 

7,033 

236 

176 

45 

640 

243 

64 

8.000 

193 

177 

50 

510 

246 

70 

8,767 

153 

175 

55 

430 

249 

75 

9,475 

141 

172 

60 

380 

252 

80 

10,100 

125 

168 

65 

340 

255 

84 

10,633 

106 

164 

70 

310 

258 

87 

11,100 

93 

158 

75 

280 

261 

90 

11,567 

93 

154 

80 

260 

263 

93 

12,000 

86 

150 

85 

240 

266 

95 

12,383 

76 

146 

90 

220 

268 

97 

12,767 

76 

142 

Quality  II 


25 

2,430 

163 

31 

2,700 

108 

108 

30 

1.840 

183 

38 

3.700 

200 

123 

35 

1,250 

195 

45 

4.850 

230 

139 

40 

870 

212 

52 

5,800 

190 

145 

45 

640 

221 

59 

6,600 

160 

147 

50 

510 

228 

65 

7,300 

140 

146 

55 

430 

233 

71 

7,925 

125 

144 

60 

380 

236 

76 

8,500 

115 

142 

65 

340 

238 

80 

9,000 

100 

138 

70 

310 

241 

84 

9,450 

90 

135 

75 

280 

244 

87 

9,900 

90 

132 

80 

260 

247 

89 

10,300 

80 

129 

85 

240 

250 

91 

10,650 

70 

125 

90 

220 

253 

93 

11,000 

70 

122 

Quality  III 


25 

2.430 

150 

28 

2.300 

92 

30 

1,840 

165 

35 

3,033 

146 

101 

35 

1,250 

176 

42 

3,850 

163 

110 

40 

870 

185 

48 

4.567 

143 

114 

45 

640 

191 

54 

5.200 

126 

116 

50 

510 

197 

60 

5.833 

126 

116 

55 

430 

201 

66 

6,375 

108 

116 

60 

380 

205 

71 

6,900 

105 

115 

65 

340 

208 

75 

7,367 

93 

113 

70 

310 

211 

79 

7,817 

90 

112 

75 

280 

213 

83 

8,233 

83 

110 

80 

260 

216 

85 

8,600 

73 

107 

85 

240 

218 

88 

8,917 

63 

105 

90 

220 

221 

89 

9.233 

63 

103 

'206 


FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 

Second  growth 


AOB 

Volume 

Quality  I 

Quality  II 

Quality  III 

Years 
20 

Board  feet 

4,600 
8,400 
15,100 
24,950 
33,550 
40,750 
47,450 
52,350 
57,300 
61,850 
65,900 
69,750 
73,300 
76,700 
80,050 

Board  feet 
3,150 
5,900 
10,800 
18,050 
25,000 
31,450 
37,800 
42,550 
47,400 
51,850 
55,800 
59,500 
62,850 
66,000 
69,000 

Board  feet 
1,700 

25 

3,450 

30 

6,550 

35 

11,200 

40 

16.450 

4.5 

22,150 

50            

27,650 

55            

32.750 

60            

37,500 

65            

41,850 

70                 

45,700 

75                 

49,250 

80                       ... 

52,400 

85 

55,300 

90 

57,950 

Volume  in  board  feet  is  round-edged  box  board  material. 
White  pine  thinnings 


Quality  I 

•.Quality  II 

Quality  III 

AoB 

Total  Thinning 
per  Acre 

Trees 
under 
5  Inches 
in  Di- 
ameter 
Breast- 
high 

Total  Thinning 
per  Acre 

Trees 
under 
5  Inches 
in  Di- 
ameter 
Breast- 
high 

Total  Thinning 
per  Acre 

Trees 
under 
5  Inches 
in  Di- 
ameter 
Breast- 
high 

Yeart 

25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
00 

Cubic 
feet 

1,350 
1,730 
1,9H0 
2,120 
2,240 
2,280 
2,280 
2,260 
2,200 
2.100 
1.950 
1,700 

Board 
feet 

2,000 

4.500 

e.hOO 

8.700 

10.100 

11.200 

12.000 

12.300 

12.300 

11.900 

11.100 

9.500 

Cubic 
feet 

830 
660 
480 
270 
60 

Cubic 
feet 

900 
1.380 
1,680 
1,900 
2,040 
2,100 
2,100 
2,000 
1.850 
1,630 
1.300 
860 
200 

Board 
feet 

750 

3.300 

5.000 

7,500 

8,900 

9,900 

10.400 

10.600 

10.300 

9..500 

8.000 

5.000 

1,200 

Cubic 
feet 

750 
600 
450 
300 
150 

Cubic 
feet 

600 

1,090 

1,440 

1,640 

1,750 

1,800 

1,780 

1,700 

1,590 

1,420 

1,200 

920 

650 

370 

Board 
feet 

2,200 
4,300 
5,800 
6,900 
7,600 
8,100 
8,300 
8,200 
7,800 
6,900 
5,600 
4,000 
2,300 

Cubic 
feet 

600 
500 
400 
300 
200 
80 

TREATING  POSTS  207 

Life  of  Fence-Posts  and  Shingles 

Durability  offence  posts  in  Minnesota  (Green). 

Years 

Red  cedar 30 

White  cedar  (quartered  6  in.  face) 10-15 

White  oak  (6  in.  round) 8 

Red  and  black  oak 4 

Tamarack  (red  wood) 9 

Elm 6-7 

Ash,  beech,  maple 4 

Black  walnut 7-10 

Prolonging  the  life  of  fence-posts  (Willis). 

Measures  for  posts  named  in  ascending  order  of  efficiency :  — 

Peeling  and  seasoning. 

Charring. 

Painting. 

At  best,  surface  brush  paintings  are  not  very  durable.  Some  of  the 
substances  which  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  are  whitewash,  petro- 
leum-tar creosote,  coal-tar  creosote,  and  various  patented  products 
of  coal  tar  and  petroleum  tar.  Paint  and  whitewash  are  inferior  to 
antiseptic  preservatives;  products  of  coal  tar  (creosote,  etc.)  are  the 
best.  These  are  best  applied  hot,  in  two  or  more  coats.  A  barrel  (50 
gallons)  of  creosote  should  be  sufficient  to  paint  at  least  300  posts  with 
three  coats  for  the  butts  and  two  for  the  tops. 

Dipping. 

One  defect  of  brush  treatment  is  that  the  preservative  does  not 
enter  readily  the  cracks  and  checks.  This  defect  may  be  overcome 
by  dipping  the  posts  in  the  preservative.  Another  advantage  of  dip- 
ping, as  compared  with  painting,  is  a  saving  in  labor.  On  the  other 
hand,  dipping  requires  a  larger  quantity  of  preservative,  and,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  amount  consumed,  there  must  be  enough  surplus  to  keep 
the  barrel  or  tank  filled  to  the  proper  depth.  This  usually  forbids 
the  use  of  any  expensive  preservative  for  dipping.  Petroleum  tar, 
coal  tar,  and  the  creosotes,  however,  may  often  be  advantageously 
employed. 

Posts  have  been  treated  by  dipping  the  butt  in  cement     This  is 


208  FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 

hardly  satisfactory.  owiiiK  to  the  case  with  which  the  protective 
coverinR  may  he  l)rok(Mi ;  moisture  is  absorbed  after  treatment ;  and 
causes  the  wood  to  expand  and  crack  the  cement. 

Cold-bath  treatment. 

This  differs  from  dipping  because  penetration  of  the  wood  is  se- 
cured l\v  leaving  the  post  in  the  bath  for  ten  hours  or  more.  As  a  rule, 
only  the  cheaper  i)reservatives  can  profitably  be  used  in  the  cold-bath 
treatment.  Coal  tar  is  so  ropy  and  sticky  that  it  will  scarcely  pene- 
trate even  the  most  easily  treated  woods.  Crude  petroleum  enters  the 
wood  rather  readily,  but  lacks  strong  antiseptic  qualities.  A  long  bath 
in  crude  petroleum  may,  however,  prove  a  feasible  method  of  treatment 
where  petroleum  is  very  cheap  and  the  woods  used  are  readily  impreg- 
nated. Creosote  is  usually  the  best  preservative  to  employ.  Coal- 
tar  creosote  requires  a  slight  heating  to  liquefy  it.  Water  in  the  wood 
cells  resists  the  penetration  of  the  oil.  Thorough  seasoning  before 
treatment,  therefore,  is  necessary  to  allow  the  oil  to  penetrate  readily 
and  to  prevent  checking  after  treatment.  The  cold-bath  method  of 
treatment  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  investigated.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  it  will  impregnate  but  few  woods.  The  woods  which 
are  likely  to  prove  most  suitable  are  beech,  cottonwood,  the  gums,  pin 
and  red  oaks,  the  pines,  sycamore,  and  tulip  tree. 

Impregnation  with  creosote. 

The  impregnation  of  fence  posts  with  creosote  is  best  accomplished 
by  the  so-called  "  open-tank  "  process,  so  designated  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  "closed  "  or  "  pressure  "  cylinder  process  which  is  often 
employed  in  creosoting  ties  and  piling.  This  consists  of  heating  wood 
for  a  certain  period  and  then  cooling  it  in  the  preservative.  The 
principle  is  simple :  during  the  heating  the  high  temperature  causes 
the  air  and  water  contained  in  the  wood  cells  to  expand,  so  that  a  por- 
tion of  this  air  and  water  is  forced  out.  The  rest  contracts  as  the  sub- 
sequent cooling  i)rogres.ses,  and  a  j)artial  vacuum  is  formed,  into  which 
atmospheric  pressure  forces  the  cool  preservative. 

The  open-tank  principle  may  be  variously  applied  in  the  treatment 
of  posts.  The  best  way  to  heat  the  posts  is  to  immerse  the-r  butts  in 
creosote  maintaned  at  a  temperature  of  220°  F.     If  a  single  tank  is 


TREATING   POSTS  AND   SHINGLES  209 

used,  the  cooling  bath  may  be  given  by  permitting  the  temperature  to 
fall,  and  in  this  case  the  preservative  must,  of  course,  be  used  for  the 
hot  bath.  It  is  better,  however,  to  employ  an  additional  tank  containing 
the  cold  preservative.  If  two  tanks  are  used  and  a  thorough  impreg- 
nation of  the  top  of  the  post  is  desired,  the  cold-bath  tank  should  be  large 
enough  to  permit  the  soaking  of  the  entire  post.  The  top  of  the  post 
will  not  be  too  heavily  impregnated,  because  it  has  not  been  im- 
mersed in  the  hot  oil.  With  two  tanks,  crude  petroleum  or  any  heavy 
(high-boiling)  oil  may  be  used  in  the  hot-bath  tank.  Creosote  is 
usually  the  most  satisfactory  preservative. 

Other  wood. 

Wood  used  on  the  farm  in  various  forms  other  than  post  material 
may  often  be  advantageously  preserved  from  decay  by  chemical 
treatment,  as  all  timbers  used  in  foundations,  sills,  beams,  and  plank- 
ing, as  well  as  the  lower  parts  of  board  fences,  and  the  lumber  used 
near  the  ground  in  sheds  and  barns.  The  treatment  of  these  is  very 
similar  to  that  given  posts. 

Prolonging  the  life  of  shingles  (Willis). 

Water  absorbed  during  a  storm  subsequently  evaporates  rapidly 
from  the  upper  surface  of  shingles  and  rather  slowly  from  the  lower 
surface.  Consequently,  the  upper  part  of  the  shingle  shrinks  more 
than  does  the  under,  and  curling  or  warping  results.  The  impor- 
tance of  excluding  moisture  is  obvious.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is 
advisable  to  employ  an  antiseptic  to  retard  decay.  The  best  pre- 
servative, it  follows,  must  possess  such  qualities  as  will  operate  in 
both  these  ways  to  prolong  the  life  of  the  shingles.  Apply  preserv- 
atives only  when  the  wood  is  thoroughly  dry. 

Non-antiseptic  preservatives.  —  The  application  of  paint  is  the  pre- 
servative measure  most  commonly  used  with  shingles.  The  method 
of  applying  it  is  of  paramount  importance.  Dipping  the  shingles 
individually  is  the  only  satisfactory  procedure.  When  a  roof  is 
painted  ridges  of  paint  are  formed  at  the  base  of  the  shingles,  owing 
to  the  irregularities  of  the  surface  over  which  the  brush  passes. 
These  cause  the  water  to  permeate  the  crevices  between  the  shingles 
and  frequently  hasten  decay. 


210  FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 

Antiseptic  preservatives.  —  Tlie  best  antiseptics  for  shingle  treat- 
ment are  creosote  and  other  derivatives  of  coal  tar.  Painting  the 
roof  with  these  oils  is  a  rather  satisfactory  method  of  treatment, 
since  the  coal-tar  derivatives  penetrate  the  shingles  better  than 
ordinary  i)aint  and  do  not  leave  ridg(;s  below  the  base  of  the  shingles. 
At  least  two  coats  should  be  applied.  Dipping  the  individual 
shingles  gives  good  results.  The  best  results,  however,  are  obtained 
by  heating  and  cooling  the  wood  in  the  preservative,  as  described 
for  the  treatment  of  fence  posts. 

Suggestions  for  community  action  (Willis). 

It  is  often  difficult  for  a  farmer  efficiently  to  treat  his  own  material 
with  preservatives.  This,  however,  does  not  indicate  that  the  work 
should  be  neglected.  Rather  it  points  to  some  different  means  of 
securing  the  desired  result. 

There  are  two  practical  methods  of  doing  this.  One  is  for  some 
individual  to  undertake  the  work  for  the  neighborhood.  A  small 
wood-preserving  plant  could  be  profitably  operated  in  connection 
with  a  threshing  outfit,  a  feed  mill,  or  sawmill.  The  other  plan  is 
for  several  farmers  to  cooperate  in  establishing  and  operating  the 
plant.  As  an  indication  of  the  success  which  should  attend  such  an 
undertaking,  the  cooperative  creameries  of  various  sections  of  the 
country  may  be  cited. 

Board  Measure 

Board  measure  is  designed  primarily  for  the  measurement  of  sawed 
lumber.  The  unit  is  the  board  foot,  which  is  a  board  one  inch  thick 
and  one  foot  square,  so  that  with  inch  boards  the  content  in  board 
measure  is  the  same  as  the  number  of  square  feet  of  surface ;  with 
lumber  of  other  thicknesses  the  content  is  expressed  in  terms  of  inch 
boards. 

Lumber  is  always  .sold  on  a  basis  of  1000  feet  board  measure,  the 
abbreviation  for  wliich  is  B.M.,  and  for  thousand  is  M.  Thus,  500 
feet  B.M.,  costing  $18  per  thousand,  would  be  S9;  100  feet  B.M., 
$1.80;    10  feet  B.M.,  18  cents. 

At  $10  per  M.,  B.M.,  lumber  costs  l^  per  square  foot ;  at  $12,  1.2<^ 
square  foot ;  at  $14,  1.4^ ;  at  $15,  11^- ;  at  $17,  1.7^  ;  at  $20,  2^  square 


BOARD   AND    CORD   MEASURE  211 

foot.     At  $9  M.,  1  sq.  ft.  is  ^%^ ;  at  $8,  j\^.      Multiply  the  number 

of  square  feet  B.M.  by  the  price  per  square  foot. 

To  find  the  B.M. ,  multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  thickness  and 

width  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  12.     Thus,  a  plank  18  ft. 

18  X  2  X  8 

long,  2  in.  thick,  and  8  in.  wide  contains — =  24  ft.  B.  M. 

1^ 

Or,  the  length  of  the  plank  in  inches  may  be  multiplied  by  the  end 

area  in  square  inches,  and  the  result  divided  by  144.     For  example, 

the  number  of  feet  B.  M.  in  a  piece  18  ft.  long,  2  in.  thick,  and  8  in. 

wide,  will  be  216  in.  (18  ft.  X  12)  multiplied  by  16  sq.  in.  (2  X  8,  the 

end  area),  or  3456  sq.  in.,  1  in.  thick;   dividing  by  144,  the  result  is 

24  ft.  B.M. 


Cord  Measure  (The  Woodsman's  Handbook,  U.  S.  Forest  Service) 

Firewood,  small  pulp-wood,  and  material  cut  into  short  sticks  for 
excelsior,  etc.,  is  usually  measured  by  the  cord.  A  cord  is  128  cubic 
feet  of  stacked  wood.  The  wood  is  usually  cut  into  4-foot  lengths,  in 
which  case  a  cord  is  a  stack  4  feet  high  and  wide,  and  8  feet  long.  Some- 
times, however,  pulp-wood  is  cut  5  feet  long,  and  a  stack  of  it 4  feet  high, 
5  feet  wide,  and  8  feet  long  is  considered  1  cord.  In  this  case  the  cord 
contains  160  cubic  feet  of  stacked  wood.  Where  firewood  is  cut  in 
5-foot  lengths,  a  cord  is  a  stack  4  feet  high  and  6^  feet  long,  and  contains 
130  cubic  feet  of  stacked  wood.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  use  shorter 
lengths  for  special  purposes,  the  sticks  are  often  cut  U,  2,  or  3  feet 
long.  A  stack  of  such  wood,  4  feet  high  and  8  feet  long,  is  considered 
1  cord,  but  the  price  is  always  made  to  conform  to  the  shortness  of  the 
measure, 

A  cord  foot  is  one-eighth  of  a  cord,  and  is  equivalent  to  a  stack  of  4- 
foot  wood  4  feet  high  and  1  foot  wide.  Farmers  frequently  speak  of 
a  foot  of  cord  wood,  meaning  a  cord  foot.  By  the  expression  "surface 
foot "  is  meant  the  number  of  square  feet  measured  on  the  side  of  a  stack. 

In  some  localities,  particularly  in  New  England,  cord-wood  is  meas- 
ured by  means  of  calipers.  Instead  of  stacking  the  wood  and  computing 
the  cords  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  average  diameter  of  each  log  is  de- 
termined with  calipers  and  the  number  of  cords  obtained  by  consulting 
a  table  which  gives  the  amount  of  wood  in  logs  of  different  diameters 
and  lengths. 


212  FORESTRY   AND    TIMBER 

Log  Measure  (The  Woodsman's  Handbook) 

In  tlie  United  States  and  Canada  logs  are  most  commonly  measured 
in  board  feet.  In  small  transactions  standing  timber  is  often  sold  by 
the  lot  or  for  a  specified  amount  per  acre.  Standing  trees  which  are  to 
be  u.sed  for  luml)er  are  occasionally  sold  by  the  piece.  Hoop  poles 
and  other  small  wood  are  sold  by  the  hundred  or  thousand.  Ties  and 
poles  are  sold  by  the  piece ;  piles  and  mine  props  by  the  piece  or  by 
linear  feet,  the  price  varying  in  piece  sales  according  to  specifications 
as  to  diameter,  length,  and  grade. 

Firewood  and  wood  cut  into  short  bolts,  as  for  small  pulp-wood,  ex- 
celsior-wood, spool-wood,  novelty-wood,  and  heading,  is  ordinarily 
measured  in  cords. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  East  it  has  been  the  custom  to  use  a  stand- 
ard log  as  a  unit  of  measure.  In  the  Adirondacks  a  common  unit  of 
measure  is  the  19-inch  standard,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  "  market." 
In  this  case  the  standard  log  is  19  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end 
inside  the  bark  and  13  feet  long.  In  New  Hampshire  the  Blodgett 
standard  is  in  common  use.  This  unit  is  a  cylinder  16  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  1  foot  long.  There  were  formerly  other  standards  in  use, 
such  as  the  24-inch  standard  once  used  in  New  England,  and  the 
22-inch  standard  in  use  in  certain  parts  of  Canada  and  northern  New 
York.    The  standard  measure  is  decreasing  in  use. 

The  cubic  foot  is  the  best  unit  for  measuring  the  volume  of  logs. 
It  has  gained  a  foothold  in  this  country,  and  will  unquestionably  be 
the  unit  of  the  future.  Even  now,  red-cedar  pencil-wood,  wagon 
stock,  and  other  valuable  hardwood  material  is  occasionally  sold  by 
the  cubic  foot  in  certain  sections  of  the  East.  The  unit  is  used  by  a  few 
companies  in  Maine  for  measuring  pulp-wood.  A  special  commission 
on  the  measurement  of  logs  has  recently  recommended  to  the  legisla- 
ture of  Maine  that  the  cubic  foot  be  adopted  as  a  statute  unit  of 
measurement. 

The  cubic  foot  has  for  a  long  time  been  used  for  the  measurement 
of  .scjuare  timl)er.  Round  logs  are  often  measured  in  terms  of  cubic 
feet,  i)ut  the  plan  is  to  determine  the  contents  of  the  square  which  can 
l)e  cut  from  the  log,  rather  than  the  full  contents,  including  slabs.  The 
cubic  foot  is  in  common  use  in  the  measurement  of  precious  woods 
which  are  imported  from  the  tropics. 


LOG   MEASURE  213 

In  continental  Europe  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  cubic  meter 
has  been  established  as  the  standard  unit  for  the  measuring  of  logs  and 
timber. 

In  recent  years,  board  measure  has  also  been  used  as  a  unit  of  volume 
for  logs.  When  so  applied,  the  measure  does  not  show  the  entire  con- 
tent of  the  log,  but  the  quantity  of  lumber  which,  it  is  estimated,  may  be 
manufactured  from  it.  The  number  of  board  feet  in  any  given  log  is 
determined  from  a  table  that  shows  the  estimated  number  which  can 
be  taken  out  from  logs  of  different  diameters  and  lengths.  Such  a 
table  is  called  a  log  scale  or  log  rule,  and  is  compiled  by  reducing  the 
dimensions  of  perfect  logs  of  different  sizes,  to  allow  for  waste  in  manu- 
facture, and  then  calculating  the  number  of  inch  boards  which  remain 
in  the  log. 

The  amount  of  lumber  that  can  be  cut  from  logs  of  a  given  size  is 
not  uniform,  because  the  factors  which  determine  the  amount  of  waste 
vary  under  different  circumstances,  such  as  the  thickness  of  the  saw, 
the  thickness  of  the  boards,  the  width  of  the  smallest  board  which  may 
be  utilized,  the  skill  of  the  sa^vyer,  the  efficiency  of  the  machinery,  the 
defects  in  the  log,  the  amount  of  taper,  and  the  shrinkage.  This  lack 
of  uniformity  has  led  to  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  to  how  log  rules 
should  be  constructed.  There  have  been  many  attempts  to  devise 
a  log  rule  which  can  be  used  as  a  standard,  but  none  of  them  will  meet 
all  conditions.  The  rules  in  existence  have  been  so  unsatisfactory  that 
constant  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  upon  them.  As  a  result 
there  are  now  actually  in  use  in  the  United  States  40  or  50  different  log 
rules,  whose  results  differ  in  some  cases  as  much  as  120  per  cent  for 
20-inch  to  30-inch  logs  and  600  per  cent  for  6-inch  logs.  Some  of  these 
are  constructed  from  mathematical  formulae ;  some  by  preparing  dia- 
grams that  represent  the  top  of  a  log  and  then  determining  the  amount 
of  waste  in  sawdust  and  slabs ;  some  are  based  on  actual  averages  of 
logs  cut  at  the  mill ;  while  still  others  are  the  result  of  making  correc- 
tions in  an  existing  rule  to  meet  special  local  conditions. 

The  large  number  of  log  rules,  the  differences  in  their  values,  and  the 
variation  in  the  methods  of  their  application  have  led  to  much  confusion 
and  inconvenience.  Efforts  to  reach  an  agreement  among  lumbermen 
on  a  single  standard  log  rule  have  failed  so  far.  A  number  of  states 
have  given  official  sanction  to  specific  rules ;  but  this  has  only  added  to 
the  confusion,  because  the  states  have  not  chosen  the  same  rule,  so 


214 


FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 


there  are  six  difTerent  state  log  rules,  and,  in  addition,  three  different 
official  log  rules  in  Canaiia.  It  is  probable  that  a  standard  method  of 
meaauring  logs  will  not  be  worked  out  satisfactorily  until  a  single 
unit  of  volume,  like  the  cubic  foot,  is  adopted  for  the  measurement 
of  logs. 

The  Forest  Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
ha^  adopte<l  the  Scribner  Decimal  Rule  for  timljer  sales  on  the  National 
Forests.  It  has  been  in  use  for  about  four  years,  and,  in  the  main,  has 
proved  satisfactory,  since  competitive  bids  enable  the  buyer  to  bid 
higher  if  the  character  of  the  logs  indicates  a  mill  overrun. 

Scribner  decimal  log  rule 

The  total  scale  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  figures  in  this  table  by  10.  Thus 
the  contents  of  a  6-inch  8-foot  log  are  given  as  0.5,  so  the  total  scale  is  .5  board 
feet.     A  30-inch  16-foot  log  is  given  as  66,  or  a  total  scale  of  660  board  feet. 


s 

i 

Length  (Feet) 

i 

s 
Q 

Length  (Feet) 

• 

8 

10 

18 

14 

16 

6 

8 

10 

IS 

14 

16 

In. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t. 

Bd.ft. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t 

Bd./t. 

In. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t. 

Bd./t. 

6 

0.5 

0.5 

1 

1 

1 

2 

42 

50 

67 

84 

101 

117 

134 

9 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

44 

56 

74 

93 

111 

129 

148 

10 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

6 

48 

65 

86 

108 

130 

151 

173 

12 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

50 

70 

94 

117 

140 

164 

187 

15 

5 

7 

9 

11 

12 

14 

54 

82 

109 

137 

164 

191 

218 

18 

8 

11 

13 

16 

19 

21 

56 

88 

118 

147 

176 

206 

235 

20 

11 

14 

17 

21 

24 

28 

60 

101 

135 

169 

203 

237 

270 

22 

13 

17 

21 

25 

29 

33 

65 

119 

159 

199 

239 

279 

319 

24 

15 

21 

25 

30 

35 

40 

70 

139 

186 

232 

279 

325 

372 

26 

19 

25 

31 

37 

44 

50 

75 

161 

215 

269 

323 

377 

430 

28 

22 

29 

36 

44 

51 

58 

80 

185 

247 

309 

371 

432 

494 

30 

25 

33 

41 

49 

57 

66 

85 

210 

281 

351 

421 

491 

561 

33 

29 

39 

49 

59 

69 

78 

90 

236 

315 

393 

472 

551 

629 

36 

35 

46 

58 

69 

81 

92 

95 

262 

350 

437 

525 

612 

700 

40 

45 

60 

75 

90 

105 

120 

100 

289 

386 

482 

579 

675 

772 

U.  S.  Forest  Service  Log-Scaling  Directions 

Unless  timber  is  sold  on  the  basis  of  an  estimate,  it  must  be  scaled, 
counted,  or  measured  before  it  is  removed  from  the  cutting  area,  or 
from  the  place  agreed  upon  for  the  scaling,  the  counting,  or  the 
measuring. 


LOG-SCALING   RULES  215 

All  saw  timber  will  be  scaled  by  the  Scribner  Decimal  log  rule.  This 
rule  drops  the  units  and  gives  the  contents  of  a  log  to  the  nearest  ten. 
When  the  total  scale  of  a  log  is  desired,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  add 
one  cipher  to  the  sum  of  the  numbers  read  from  the  scale  stick,  except- 
ing the  contents  of  6  and  8  foot  logs,  6  and  7  inches  in  diameter.  These 
are  given  as  0.5,  which,  multiplied  by  10,  gives  5  feet  as  the  actual  con- 
tents. 

In  the  absence  of  a  scale  stick,  or  where  the  position  of  logs  in  the 
pile  makes  its  use  difficult,  the  diameters  and  lengths  may  be  tallied 
and  the  contents  figured  from  a  scale  table  later. 

Purchasers  should  be  required  to  skid  logs  for  scaling,  if  the  cost  of 
scaling  will  be  materially  decreased  by  these  requirements  and  if  the 
cost  of  logging  will  not  be  greatly  increased. 

The  forest  officer  should  always  insist  on  having  one  end  of  piles  or 
skid  ways  even,  so  that  ends  of  logs  may  be  easily  reached. 

When  necessary  and  possible,  the  purchaser  will  be  required  to  mark 
top  ends  of  logs  to  avoid  question  when  they  are  scaled  in  the  pile. 

Each  log  scaled  must  be  numbered  with  crayon.  The  number  will 
be  the  same  as  that  opposite  which  the  scale  of  the  log  is  recorded  in 
the  scale  book. 

The  logs  in  all  skid  ways  must  be  counted,  and  the  number  in  each 
checked  with  the  entries  in  the  scale  book. 

Each  merchantable  log  after  scaling  will  be  stamped  "  U.S."  on  at 
least  one  end.  Logs  so  defective  as  to  be  unmerchantable  will  not  be 
stamped,  but  will  be  marked  "  cull." 

On  all  national  forests  except  those  in  Alaska  and  on  the  west  slope 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Washington  and  Oregon,  logs  over  16  feet 
long  will  be  scaled  as  two  or  more  logs,  if  possible  in  lengths  not  less 
than  12  feet. 

The  following  table  shows  how  the  lengths  will  be  divided  when 
scaling  logs  18  to  60  feet  long.  The  number  of  inches  to  be  added  to 
the  diameter  at  the  small  end  of  each  log,  to  cover  taper,  is  placed  under 
each  length. 

For  example,  a  42-foot  log  16  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top  would  be 
scaled  as  — 

One  12-foot  log  with  a  diameter  of  16  inches. 

One  14-foot  log  with  a  diameter  of  17  inches. 

One  16-foot  log  with  a  diameter  of  19  inches. 


216 


FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 


Allowances  for  taper  in  logs 

This  table  is  intended  to  be  used  simply  as  a  guide.     The  allowances  for  taper 
should  be  varied  to  conform  to  the  actual  taper 


Total  Lenoth 

Loo  Lbnqth 

Total  Length 

Loo  Length 

Feet 

Butt 
Log 

Sec- 

ODd 

Log 

Third 
Log 

Top 
Log 

Feet 

Butt 
Log 

Sec- 
ond 
Log 

Third 
Ixjg 

Top 
Log 

18 

Increase 
20 

Increase 
22 

Increase 
24 

Increase 
26 

Increase 
28 

Increase 
30 

Increase 
32 

Increase 
34 

Increase 
36 

Increase 
38 

Increase 

10' 

1" 
10' 

1" 
12' 

1" 
14' 

1" 
14' 

1" 
14' 

2" 
16' 

2" 
16' 

2" 
12' 

3" 

% 

14' 
3" 

12' 
1" 

12' 
1" 



8' 

0" 
10' 

0" 
10' 

0" 
10' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
14' 

0" 
14' 

0" 
16' 

0" 
10' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 

40      ...      . 

Increase  . 
42     ...     . 

Increase  . 
44     ...     . 

Increase  . 
46     ...     . 

Increase  . 
48     ...     . 

Increase  . 
50     ...     . 

Increase  . 
52     ...     . 

Increase  . 
54     ...     . 

Increase  . 
56     ...     . 

Increase  . 
58     ...     . 

Increase  . 
60     ...     . 

Increase  . 

16' 

3" 
16' 

3" 
16' 

3" 
16' 

4" 
16' 
4" 
14' 

4" 
16' 

4" 
16' 

5" 
16' 

5" 
16' 

5" 
16' 

5" 

12' 
14^^ 

16' 

1" 
16' 

2" 
16' 

2" 
12' 

3" 
12' 

3" 
14' 

3" 
16' 

3" 
16' 

3" 
16' 

3" 

12' 

1" 
12' 

1" 
12' 

1" 
12' 

1" 
14' 

2" 
14' 

2" 

12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
14' 

0" 
16' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
12' 

0" 
14' 

0" 

Cubic  Log  Measure    (The  Woodsman's  Handbook) 

A  cubic  unit,  either  the  cubic  foot  or  cubic  meter,  ultimately  will  be 
in  common  use  for  the  commercial  measurement  of  timber.  This  will 
come  about  with  the  increase  of  the  value  of  timber.  When  the  whole 
log,  including  slabs,  can  be  used,  the  owner  cannot  afford  to  sell  his 
logs  purely  on  a  basis  of  an  estimated  product  in  manufactured  boards. 
If  logs  are  bought  according  to  their  solid  contents,  though  they  may 
not  cost  more,  yet  the  buyer  will  feel  that  he  pays  for  the  material  he 
wastes,  and  therefore  will  be  more  eager  to  utilize  it. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  of  determining  the  solid  contents  of 
logs  in  cubic  feet.  The  two  methods  in  most  common  use  for  commer- 
cial work  are  given  in  this  book.  Other  methods,  designed  for  scientific 
work,  are  discussed  at  length  in  treatises  on  forest  mensuration. 


CUBIC  LOG   MEASURE  217 

Method  oj  cubing  logs  by  the  measurement  of  the  length  and  of  the  middle 
diameters. 

To  cube  logs,  one  method  requires  the  measurement  of  the  average 
diameter  of  the  log  at  its  middle  point  and  the  length.  The  volume 
of  the  log  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  area  of  the  circle  correspond- 
ing to  the  middle  diameter  of  the  log  by  the  length :  — 

in  which  V  is  the  volume  of  the  log  in  cubic  feet,  B^  the  area  of  the 
middle  cross  section  in  square  feet,  and  L  the  length  in  feet. 

Example :  Suppose  a  log  to  have  a  middle  diameter  of  15  inches  and 
a  length  of  30  feet.  One  finds  in  a  table  of  areas  of  circles  (giving  the 
diameter  in  inches  and  the  area  in  square  feet)  the  area  corresponding 
to  15  inches,  namely,  1.227 ;   then  V  =  1.227  X  30  =  36.8  cubic  feet. 

This  method  is  very  simple,  because  it  requires  only  two  measure- 
ments of  the  log  —  the  diameter  at  the  middle  and  the  length.  Tables 
showing  the  areas  of  circles  in  these  units  are  readily  accessible,  and 
also  tables  showing  the  cubic  contents  of  logs  of  different  middle  diam- 
eters and  lengths,  so  that  there  is  no  computation  necessary. 

Method  of  cubing  logs  by  measurement  of  the  length  and  end  diameters. 

By  this  method  the  diameters  of  the  two  ends  of  the  log  and  its  length 
are  measured.  The  volume  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  average  of 
the  areas  of  circles  that  correspond  to  end  diameters  by  the  length  :  — 

2 

in  which  V  is  the  volume  of  the  log  in  cubic  feet,  B  and  b  are  the  areas 
in  square  feet  that  correspond  to  the  diameters  of  the  two  ends,  and  L 
is  the  length  in  feet. 

Example :  A  log  is  12  feet  long,  and  the  diameters  at  the  ends  are 
16  and  18  inches.  The  areas  that  correspond  to  the  end  diameters  are 
found  in  a  table  of  circular  areas,  and  used  in  the  formula,  as  follows :  — 

V  =1396+1767  ^  j2  =  18.97  cu.  ft. 


218 


FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 


This  method  requires  one  more  measurement  than  the  previous,  and 
is  therefore  not  as  rapid  for  ordinary  work  in  commercial  scaling.  It 
is,  however,  a  very  convenient  formula  for  determining  the  contents  of 
logs  where  it  is  not  possible  to  take  the  measurement  at  the  middle,  as  on 
logs  piled  on  a  skid  way. 

Solid  cubic  contents  of  logs  (in  cubic  feet) 


11 

Average  Diametek  in  Inches 

• 
1.96 

8 

10 

1? 

15 

18 

20 

24 

30 

33 

36 

40 

44 

48 

10    . 

3.49 

5.45 

7.85 

12.27 

17.67 

21.82 

31.42 

49.09 

59.40 

70.69 

87.3 

105.6 

125.7 

11   . 

2.16 

3.84 

6.00 

8.64 

13.50 

19.44 

24.00 

34.56 

54.00 

65.34 

77.75 

96.0 

116.2 

138.2 

\2    . 

2.36 

4.19 

6.55 

9.42 

14.73 

21.21 

26.18 

37.70 

58.90 

71.27 

84.82 

104.7 

126.7 

150.8 

13    . 

2.5.5 

4.54 

7.09 

10.21 

15.95 

22.97 

2S.36 

40.84 

63.81 

77.21 

91.,S9  113.4 

137.3 

163.4 

14    . 

2.75 

4.89 

7.6} 

11.00 

17.1S 

21.74 

30.54 

43.98 

68.72 

83.15 

9S.«)C)  122.2 

147.8 

175.9 

15   . 

2.95 

5.24 

S.IS 

11. 7S 

IS.  41 

26.51 

32.72 

47.12 

73.63 

89.09 

106.03  l.iO.9 

1.58.4 

188.5 

16   . 

3.14 

5..59 

8.73 

12.. 57 

19.6:< 

2S.L>7 

34.91 

.50.27 

78..54     95.03 

113.10  1.-^9.6 

16S.9 

201.1 

17    . 

3.34 

5.93 

9.27 

13.:i5 

20.Sti 

30.01 

37.09 

.53.41 

83.45  100.97 

120.17  148.4 

179.5 

213.6 

18   . 

3.53 

6.2S 

9.S2 

14.14 

22.09 

31. SI 

39.27 

.56.. 55 

88.36  106.91 

127.32  157.1 

190.1 

226.2 

19   . 

3.73 

6.6.i 

10. S6 

14.92 

2.J.32 

33. 5S 

41.45 

59.69 

93.27  112.85 

134.30  165.8 

200.6 

238.8 

20   . 

-3.93 

6.9S 

10.91 

15.71 

24.. 54 

35.34 

43.63 

62.83 

98.171118.79 

141.37 

174.5 

211.2 

251.3 

21    . 

4.12 

7.V.i 

11.4.") 

16.49 

25.77 

37.11 

45.82 

65.97 

103.08  124.73 

148.44 

188.3 

221.7 

263.9 

22   . 

4.32 

7.6S 

12.00 

I7.2S 

27.00 

3S.SS 

4S.00 

69.11 

107.99  1,30.67 

1.55.51 

192.0 

232.3 

276.5 

23    . 

4.52 

S.0.{ 

12.5  J 

IS.  06 

2S.2:i 

40.64 

.50.18 

72.26 

112.90  136.61 

162.58  200.7 

242.9 

289.0 

24    . 

4.71 

H.SS 

l.i.09 

IS.  So 

29.45 

42.41 

.52.36 

75.40 

117.81  142..55 

169.65  209.4 

2.53.4 

.301.6 

2.i   . 

4.91 

S.7.< 

l.i.C} 

19.61 

.iO.OS 

44. IS 

.54., 54 

7S.54 

122.72  148.49  176.71  21S.2 

2(i4.0 

314.2 

26    . 

5.11 

9.  OS 

1 4 . 1 S 

20.42 

31.91 

45.95 

.56.72 

S1.6S 

127.63  1.54.43  183.78  22(5.9 

274.5 

326.7 

27    . 

5.30 

9.42 

14.7.i 

21.21 

33.13 

47.71 

.5S.90 

S4.S2 

132. .54  160.37  190.85  235.6 

2S5.1 

339.3 

28   . 

5..50 

9.77 

15.27 

21.99 

34  36 

49. 4S 

()1.0!» 

S7.96 

137.44  166.31 

197.92  244.3 

295.7 

351.9 

29   . 

5.69 

10.12 

15..S2 

22.7s 

35. .59 

51.25 

63.27 

91.11 

142.35  172.25 

204.99  2.53.1 

306.2 

.364.4 

30   . 

5.89 

10.47 

16..i6 

2.S.56 

36.  S2 

.53.01 

65.45 

94.25 

147.26  178.19 

212.06  261.S 

316.S 

377.0 

:u   . 

6.0«»  H).S2 

16.<U 

24.35 

3S.04 

54. 7S 

67.63 

97.39 

152.17  184.13 

219.13  270.5 

327.3 

.389.6 

s>  . 

6.2S 

11.17 

17.4.-) 

25. 1 3 

39.27 

.56.55 

69.  SI 

100.. 53 

1.57.0S  190.07 

226.19  279.3 

337.9 

402.1 

Xi   . 

t).4s 

1 1  ..-)2 

IS. 00 

25.92 

40.. 50 

.5S.32 

71.99 

103.67 

161.99,196.01  2.«. 26  2SS.0 

34S.5 

414.7 

.u  . 

(l.tls 

11. S7 

ls.-,i 

2ti.70 

41.72  60.0^ 

71. IS 

10(i  SI 

16().90  201.95  240.33  296.7 

3.59.0 

427.3 

'.i'>  . 

li.s; 

12.22 

19.09 

27.49 

42.95  6 1.S-, 

76 :;(; 

109.96 

171. SI  207. SS  247.10  305.4 

;}69.6 

439.8 

.<»>  . 

7.07 

12..-)7 

19.64 

2S.27 

44. IS  (VA.(\2 

7s. 51 

113.10 

176.71  213. S2  2,-)4.47  314.2 

.-•iso.i 

4.52.4 

.{7    . 

7.2f, 

12.92 

20.  IN 

29. Of, 

45.41  65.3  S 

SO  72 

116.24 

1S1.62  21<t.76  2()1.54  .322.9 

390.7 

465.0 

;is  . 

7.46 

1.1.26 

20.73 

29  S5 

46.63  67.15 

S2.90 

119.3S 

1S6..53  225.70  26S.61  ;«1.6 

401.2 

477.5 

.!!>    . 

7.6«i 

13.61 

21.27 

.30.63 

47.S6  6S.<t_> 

S5.0S 

122.52 

191.44  231.64  275.67  340.3 

411.8 

490.1 

40   . 

7.85 

13.96 

21.82 

31.42 

49.09j70.63 

87.27 

123.66 

196.35  237.58  282.74  349.1 

422.4 

502.7 

Cubic  Contents  of  Square  Timber  in  Round  Logs  (Woodsman's 
Handbook) 

The  nioHt  coninion  nictliods  of  determining  the  cubic  contents  of 
s(iuare  timber  that  may  be  cut  from  round  logs  is  the  so-called  Two- 
thirds  Rule,  and  the  Inscribed  Square  Rule. 


CUBIC   CONTENTS   OF  SQUARE   TIMBER 


219 


The  two-thirds  rule. 

In  the  Two-thirds  Rule  the  diameter  of  the  log  is  taken  at  its  middle 
point,  or  the  diameters  of  the  two  ends  of  the  log  are  averaged.  The 
diameter  of  the  log  is  reduced  one-third  to  allow  for  slab,  and  the  re- 
maining two-thirds  is  taken  as  the  width  of  the  square  piece  which  may 
be  hewed  or  sawed  out  of  the  log.  The  cubic  contents  of  the  squared 
log  are  then  obtained  by  squaring  this  width  and  multiplying  by  the 
length  of  the  log. 

Square  timber  cut  from  round  logs  (in  cubic  feet) 
(Inscribed-Square  Rule) 


Average  Diameter  in 

Inches 

^2 

6 

8 

10 

12 

18 

30 

24 

30 

33 

36 

10 

1.3 

2.2 

3.5 

5 

11.3 

13.9 

20 

31.8 

37.8 

45 

12 

1.5 

2.7 

4.2 

6 

13.5 

16.7 

24 

38.1 

45.4 

54 

14 

1.8 

3.1 

4.9 

7 

15.8 

19.4 

28 

44.5 

52.9 

63 

16 

2.0 

3.6 

5.6 

8 

18.0 

22.2 

32 

50.8 

60.5 

72 

18 

2.3 

4.0 

6.2 

9 

20.3 

25.0 

36 

57.2 

68.1 

81 

20 

2.5 

4.4 

7.0 

10 

22.5 

27.8 

40 

63.5 

75.6 

90 

22 

2.8 

4.9 

7.6 

11 

24.8 

30.1 

44 

69.9 

83.2 

99 

24 

3.0 

5.3 

8.3 

12 

27.0 

33.3 

48 

76.2 

90.8 

108 

26 

3.3 

5.8 

9.0 

13 

29.3 

36.1 

52 

82.6 

98.3 

117 

28 

3.5 

6.2 

9.7 

14 

31.5 

38.9 

56 

88.9 

105.9 

126 

30 

3.8 

6.7 

10.4 

15 

33.8 

41.7 

60 

95.3 

113.5 

135 

32 

4.0 

7.1 

11.1 

16 

36.0 

44.4 

64 

101.6 

121.0 

144 

34 

4.3 

7.5 

11.8 

17 

38.3 

47.2 

68 

108  0 

128.6 

153 

36 

4.5 

8.0 

12.5 

18 

40.2 

50.0 

72 

114.3 

136.2 

162 

38 

4.8 

8.4 

13.2 

19 

42.8 

52.8 

76 

120.7 

143.7 

171 

40 

5.0 

8.9 

13.9 

20 

45.0 

55.6 

80 

127.0 

151.3 

180 

42 

5.3 

9.3 

14.6 

21 

47.3 

58.3 

84 

133.4 

158.8 

189 

44 

5.5 

9.8 

15.3 

22 

49.5 

61.1 

88 

139.7 

166.4 

198 

46 

5.8 

10.2 

16.0 

23 

51.8 

63.9 

92 

146.1 

174.0 

207 

48 

6.0 

10.7 

16.6 

24 

54.0 

66.7 

96 

152.4 

181.5 

216 

50 

6.3 

11.1 

17.4 

25 

56.3 

69.5 

100 

158.8 

189.1 

225 

52 

6.5 

11.5 

18.0 

26 

58.5 

72.2 

104 

165.1 

196.7 

234 

54 

6.8 

12.0 

18.7 

27 

60.8 

75.0 

108 

171.2 

204.2 

243 

56 

7.0 

12.4 

19.4 

28 

63.0 

77.8 

112 

177.8 

211.8 

252 

58 

7.3 

12.9 

20.1 

29 

65.3 

80.6 

116 

184.2 

219.4 

261 

60 

7.5 

13.3 

20.8 

30 

67.5 

83.3 

120 

190.5 

226.9 

270 

62 

7.8 

13.8 

21.5 

31 

69.8 

86.1 

124 

196.9 

234.5 

279 

64 

8.0 

14.2 

22.2 

32 

72.0 

89.9 

128 

203.2 

242.0 

288 

66 

8.3 

14.7 

22.9 

33 

74.3 

91.7 

132 

209.6 

249.6 

297 

68 

•  8.5 

15.1 

23.6 

34 

76.5 

94.5 

136 

215.9 

257.2 

306 

70 

8.8 

15.5 

24.3 

35 

78.8 

97.2 

140 

222.3 

264.7 

315 

72 

9.0 

16.0 

25.0 

36 

81.0 

100.0 

144 

228.6 

272.3 

324 

74 

9.3 

16.4 

25.7 

37 

83.3 

102.8 

148 

235.0 

279.9 

333 

76 

9.5 

16.9 

26.4 

38 

85.5 

105.6 

152 

241.3 

287.4 

342 

220  FORESTRY  AND    TIMBER 

The  inscribed-square  rule. 

The  Inscribed-Square  Rule  gives  the  cubic  contents  of  square  pieces 
which  can  be  exactly  inscribed  in  cylinders  of  different  sizes.  The 
\Ni(lth  of  this  square  piece  is  usually  obtained  by  multiplying  the  diam- 
eter of  the  cylinder  by  17  and  dividing  the  result  by  24,  or  by  multi- 
jiiying  the  diameter  by  0.7071.  This  rule  of  thumb  for  calculating 
the  width  of  the  inscribed  square  piece  is  based  on  the  fact  that  one  side 
of  the  square  inscribed  in  a  circle  24  inches  in  diameter  is  17  inches  long. 

The  exact  mathematical  rule  for  determining  the  side  of  a  square 
inscribed  in  a  circle  is  to  square  the  diameter,  divide  by  2,  and  extract 
the  scjuare  root.  The  table  on  the  preceding  page  was  computed  by 
this  method. 

Practically  the  same  results  are  obtained  by  the  Seventeen-inch 
Rule,  which  is  based  on  the  fact  that  a  17-inch  log  will  square  12  inches. 
According  to  the  Seventeen-inch  Rule,  the  cubic  contents  of  a  log  are 
obtained  as  follows:  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  log 
by  its  length,  and  divide  by  the  square  of  17. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Weeds 

A  Weed  is  a  plant  that  is  not  wanted.  The  methods  of  weed- 
control  depend  largely  on  the  character  of  soil,  system  of  farming 
practiced  in  the  neighborhood,  and,  particularly,  on  the  type  of  weed 
concerned,  whether  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial.  The  better  the 
crop-scheme,  the  less  will  be  the  difficulty  from  bad  weeds.  The  prime 
remedy,  therefore,  is  to  improve  the  general  farm  plan  and  practice, 
and  to  use  only  clean  seed.  Special  means  and  methods  may  be  dis- 
cussed, however;  and  these  discussions  are  drawn  from  Farmers' 
Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  from  bul- 
letins of  the  Rhode  Island,  Ohio,  and  North  Dakota  Stations, 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  and  other  sources. 

General  Practices 

For  annual  weeds,  which  reproduce  from  seed  only,  the  root  and 
branch  dying  each  year,  the  essentials  for  eradication  are  the  use  of 
clean  seed,  the  killing  of  plants  before  they  ripen  seeds,  and  the  preven- 
tion of  new  infestation  by  such  means  as  manure  from  stables  where 
weed  forage  has  been  used.  For  permanent  pastures,  lawns,  and 
roadsides  the  prevention  of  seed  production  is  often  the  most  practi- 
cable method,  and  it  is  sufficient  if  persistently  followed.  In  culti- 
vated fields  the  land  thus  seeded  may  first  be  burned  over  to  destroy 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  seeds  on  the  surface.  It  may  then  be  plowed 
shallow,  so  as  not  to  bury  the  remaining  seeds  too  deeply.  The  succeed- 
ing cultivation,  not  deeper  than  the  plowing,  will  induce  the  germina- 
tion of  seeds  in  this  layer  of  soil  and  kill  the  seedlings  as  they  appear. 
The  land  may  then  be  plowed  deeper,  and  the  tillage  repeated  until 
the  weed  seeds  are  cleared  out  to  as  great  a  depth  as  the  plow  ever 
reaches.  Below  that  depth,  eight  to  ten  inches,  very  few  weed  seeds 
can  germinate  and  push  a  shoot  to  the  surface.    Barren  summer- 

221 


222  WEEDS 

fallowing  is  often  practiced  to  clear  out  weedy  land  by  the  method  just 
described ;   but  usually  a  cultivated  crop  may  better  be  grown. 

For  bicnniali^,  which  also  reproduce  from  seed,  mowing  them  when 
coming  into  flower  or  cutting  the  roots  below  the  crown  is  usually 
effect ive.  Autumn  is  the  best  time  for  such  grubbing.  Biennial 
weeds  are  readily  killed  by  such  tillage  as  is  given  to  hoed  crops. 

For  perennials  which  reproduce  both  from  seed  and  from  surface 
runners  or  perennial  underground  roots  or  stems,  seed  production  must 
be  prevented  and  the  underground  part  must  be  killed.  Seed  production 
may  be  prevented  by  mowing  when  the  first  flower-buds  appear.  The 
best  methods  for  killing  the  roots  or  rootstocks  vary  considerably 
according  to  the  soil,  climate,  character  of  the  different  weeds,  and  the 
size  of  the  patch  or  the  quantity  to  be  killed.  In  general,  however,  the 
following  principles  apply  :  — 

1.  The  roots,  rootstocks,  bulbs,  and  the  like,  may  be  dug  up  and 
removed,  a  remedy  that  can  be  practically  applied  only  in  small  areas. 

2.  Salt,  coal  oil,  or  strong  acid  applied  so  as  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  freshly  cut  roots  or  rootstocks  destroys  them  for  some  distance  from 
the  point  of  contact.  Crude  sulfuric  acid  is  probably  the  most  effec- 
tive of  comparatively  inexpensive  materials  that  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  but  its  strong  corrosive  properties  render  it  dangerous  to 
handle.  Carbolic  acid  is  less  corrosive,  and  nearly  as  effective.  Arse- 
nite  of  soda  and  arsenate  of  soda,  dangerous  poisons,  are  effective, 
particularly  the  former,  applied  as  a  spray  on  the  growing  weeds. 
Fuel-distillate,  a  petroleum  product,  is  very  promising. 

3.  Roots  may  be  starved  to  death  by  preventing  any  development 
of  green  leaves  or  other  parts  above  ground.  This  may  be  effected 
by  building  straw  stacks  over  small  patches,  by  persistent,  thorough 
cultivation  in  fields,  by  the  use  of  the  hoe  or  spud  in  waste  places,  and 
by  salting  the  plants  and  turning  on  sheep  in  permanent  pastures. 

4.  The  plants  may  usually  be  smothered  by  dense  sod-forming  grasses 
or  by  a  crop  like  hemp,  buckwheat,  clover,  cowpeas,  or  millet  that  will 
exclude  the  light. 

5.  Most  roots  are  readily  destroyed  by  exposing  them  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  sun  during  the  summer  drought,  or  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  frost  in  winter.  In  this  way  plowing,  for  example,  becomes  effec- 
tive. 

6.  Proper  crop  rotation  is  one  of  the   best  means  of  eradication. 


WEED  POISONS  223 

Chemical  Weed-Killers  or  Herbicides 

The  usefulness  of  chemicals  as  weed-killers  is  largely  limited  to  the 
following  cases  (Jones) :  — 

1.  When  an  especially  obnoxious  weed,  as  poison  ivy,  occurs  in  a 
limited  locality  and  is  to  be  destroyed  regardless  of  consequences  to 
soil  or  neighboring  plants. 

2.  When  the  aim  is  to  render  the  soil  permanently  sterile,  as  in 
roadways,  tennis  courts,  and  the  like. 

3.  When  the  weed  plant,  as  orange  hawkweed  and  mustard,  is 
much  more  sensitive  than  the  associated  useful  plants  to  the  action  of 
some  herbicide. 

Kinds  of  herbicides  (L.  R.  Jones). 

The  chemicals  used  as  herbicides,  the  worth  of  which  has  been 
established,  are  the  following :  — 

Salt  (sodium  chlorid),  is  more  commonly  used  than  any  other  com- 
pound, chiefly  because  of  cheapness  and  handiness.  It  should  be 
applied  dry  or  in  strong  solution ;  and  it  is  most  effective  in  hot,  dry 
weather.  Salt  can  be  used  in  any  weed-killing  operation,  but  it  is  most 
valuable  on  roadways  and  like  surfaces  and  for  certain  lawn  weeds. 
Hot  brine  (one  pound  salt  to  one  gallon  water)  is  useful  on  walks  and 
roadways. 

Blue  vitriol  (copper  sulfate). — This  is  more  powerful  in  herbicidal 
action  than  salt,  but  its  cost  prohibits  its  general  use.  For  most  pur- 
poses it  is  best  used  in  solution,  2  to  10  per  cent  being  effective.  It  is 
often  used  on  gravel  walks  and  similar  surfaces,  but  salt  will  generally 
be  found  cheaper  and  arsenical  poisons  more  effective.  Its  chief  value 
is  against  charlock  or  mustard. 

Copper  sulfate  solution,  containing  8  to  10  pounds  of  blue  vitriol  to 
50  gallons  of  water,  and  applied  at  the  rate  of  40  to  50  gallons  per  acre, 
is  a  good  formula. 

Iron  sulfate  (copperas)  solution,  containing  If  to  2  pounds  of  iron 
sulfate  to  the  gallon  of  water  (100  pounds  iron  sulfate  to  52  gallons  of 
water),  is  a  good  herbicide.  Use  at  the  rate  of  50  to  75  gallons  per 
acre. 

Kerosene.  —  This  and  other  coal-oil  products  will  kill  plants.  It  is 
weak  in  efficiency,  and  relatively  more  costly  than  any  other  chemical 


1.>1.>4  WEEDS 

licrc  listed.  A  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  will  do  better  service  than 
two  gallons  of  kerosene,  and  costs  much  less. 

Carbolic  acid.  —  This  is  one  of  the  quickest  and  most  valuable  herbi- 
cides. The  crude  acid  is  relatively  cheap.  It  is  not  quite  equal  to  the 
arsenical  poisons  for  penetrating  the  soil,  or  in  lasting  effects,  but  it  is 
often  preferable  because  of  cost  or  convenience.  It  does  not  corrode 
metals,  and  therefore  may  be  applied  with  any  spray-can  or  pump. 
An  effective  method  is  to  squirt  the  strong  acid  from  an  ordinary  oil 
can  on  the  roots  or  crown  of  individual  weeds.  If  it  is  to  be  sprayed  or 
sprinkled  broadcast  on  the  foliage  or  ground,  it  should  be  diluted  with 
15  to  30  parts  of  water,  and  this  mixture  agitated  frequently  during  use. 

Sulfuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol).  —  This  is  destructive  to  everything  it 
touches.  It  can  be  applied  in  the  crown  or  about  the  roots  of  coarse  or 
especially  hardy  plants,  provided  the  user  is  willing  to  kill  the  adjacent 
vegetation  also.  In  general,  carbolic  acid  will  be  preferred,  partly 
because  sulfuric  acid  can  be  handled  only  in  glass  vessels. 

Caustic  soda. — A  strong  solution  of  this  material  makes  a  cheap 
and  effective  herbicide,  commended  especially  for  pouring  on  soil 
where  it  is  desired  to  destroy  poison  ivy  or  other  deep-rooted  or  woody 
plants.  Soil  so  treated  will  be  rendered  sterile  for  some  time,  but  the 
so<la  will  gradually  leach  away.  Like  salt,  this  is  most  effective  if 
applied  in  hot,  dry  weather. 

Arsctncal  compounds.  —  One  or  another  of  the  soluble  arsenical  com- 
l)ounds  form  the  most  effective  herbicides  kno^vn,  to  use  on  roadways 
and  other  plain  surfaces.  These  form  the  basis  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  of 
the  various  proprietary  "  herbicides  "  or  "  weed-killers."  The  sim- 
I)lest  to  employ  is  arsenite  of  soda.  This  needs  only  to  be  dissolved  in 
water  for  use,  the  rate  of  1  pound  in  3  to  9  gallons  of  water.  White 
arsenic  is  still  cheaper,  but  according  to  Schutt's  formula  it  must  be 
combined  with  sal  soda,  which  is  somewhat  bothersome.  (White 
arsenic,  1  pound  ;  washing  soda,  2  pounds  ;  water,  3  to  9  gallons.)  An 
important  characteristic  of  these  arsenical  poisons  is  that  they  endure 
for  a  long  time  and  do  not  readily  wash  or  leach  away. 

Application  of  Herbicides 

Gravel  roadways,  gutters,  tennis  courts,  walks,  and  like  surfaces  can  be 
kept  free  from  weedy  growths  by  the  application  of  any  of  the  above. 


WEED   POISONS 


226 


If  salt  is  used,  it  should  be  scattered  freely  in  the  dry  form.  Caution  is 
necessary  where  it  is  hable  to  be  washed  on  to  lawns,  lest  it  damage 
the  grass  borders.  Carbolic  acid  or  arsenical  poisons  are  preferable 
being  both  less  liable  to  wash  and  more  enduring  in  their  action.  One 
quart  of  crude  carbolic  acid  in  eight  gallons  of  water,  or  one  pound  of 
either  arsenical  compound  mentioned  above  in  a  like  amount  of  water, 
will  suffice  to  cover  a  square  rod  or  more  of  surface;  and  one  or  at 
most  two  applications  per  year  will  be  sufficient. 

Walks  should  be  so  made  that  weeds  cannot  grow  in  them.  This 
can  be  done  by  making  a  deep  stone  foundation  and  filling  between  the 
stones  with  cinders,  coal  ashes,  or  other  similar  material. 

List  of  weeds  that  may  be  controlled  by  means  of  chemical  sprays. 

The  following  named  weeds  may  be  eradicated  or  largely  subdued  in 
cereal  grain  fields  through  the  use  of  chemical  sprays:  False-flax, 
worm-seed  mustard,  tumbling  mustard,  common  wikl  mustard, 
Shepherd's  purse,  pepper-grass,  ball-mustard,  corn  cockle,  chickweed, 
dandelion,  Canada  thistle,  bindweed,  plantain,  rough  pigweed,  king- 
head,  Red  River  weed,  ragweed,  cocklebur. 

Weeds  on  which  field  spraying  methods  as  now  in  use  are  not  effective. 

The  following  weeds  are  not  effectively  controlled  by  chemical  sprays 
as  now  used  :  Hare's  ear  mustard,  French  weed,  pink  cockle,  perennial 
sow-thistle,  lamb's-quarters,  pigeon-grass,  wild  oats,  chess,  quack- 
grass,  sweet-grass,  or  holy-grass,  and  wild  barley. 


Results  of  spraying  with  iron  sulfate  for  the  control  of  weeds  (Rhode  IslandSta.) 


Plant 

Common  Name 

Botanical  Name 

Yellow  dosk    .     ,     ,     , 

Sheep  sorrel     ,     .     .     , 

Common  chickweed 
Mouse-ear  chickweed    , 

Purslane 

Rumex  crispus 

Rumex  Acetosella 

Stellaria  media 
Cerastium  vulgatum 

Portulaca  oleracea 

Plants    checked     for     about 

three  weeks. 
All   blossoms   killed   and   90 

per  cent  of  all  leaf  growth. 
Killed.     Can   be   controlled. 
Practically  killed,  but  not  so 

easily     as     the     common 

chickweed. 
Young    leaves    and    tips    of 

stems  killed.     Old  growth 

not  injured. 

WEEDS 


Resvdta  of  spraying  with  iron  sulfate  —  Continued 


Plant 

Common  Name 

Botanical  Name 

Buttercup 

Shepherd's  purse       .      . 
Five-finger       .... 

Poison  ivy        .... 

Wild  carrot      .... 
Common  plantain     . 

Rib       grass.       narrow- 
leaved  plantain 

Robins  plantain    . 

Yarrow 

Ranunculus  bulbosus 
Capsella  Bursa-pastoris 
Potentilla  Canadensis 

Rhus  Toxicodendron 

Daucus  Carota 
Plantago  major 

Plantago  lanceolata 

Erigeron  pulchellus 
Achillea  Millefolium 

KUIed. 

Completely  controlled. 

Young     plants     killed,     old 

plants  seriously  injured. 
Not    injured    when    sprayed 

with  concentrated  solution. 
Only  slightly  injured. 
Leaves  badly  spotted,  plant 

not  killed. 
Young  plants  killed,  old  ones 

prevented  from   maturing 

seeds. 
Blossom  buds  killed,  no  seed 

formed. 
Practically  no  injury. 

With  the  exception  of  the  application  to  the  poison  ivy,  the  iron 
sulfate  was  ai^pUed  as  a  20  per  cent  solution,  using  it  at  the  rate  of 
100  to  150  pounds  per  acre. 

At  the  South  Dakota  Station  the  following  weeds  were  entirely  killed 
Ijy  the  u.se  of  iron  sulfate:  — 

Wild  mustard  (Brassica  arvensis) ;  ragweed  (Ambrosia  artemiscefolia) ; 
king-head  or  greater  ragweed  {Ambrosia  trifida) ;  bindweed  {Convol- 
vulus  Sepium) ;  marsh  elder  (Iva  xanthifolia) ;  milkweed  (Asckpias 
sp.) ;  pepper-grass  (Lepidi urn  Virginicum) ;  pigweed  { Am,arantus  sp.) ; 
sweet  clover  (Mclilotus  alba  and  M.  officinalis).  Those  that  were 
more  or  less  badly  injured :  Russian  thistle  (Salsola  Kali) ;  sunflower 
{lidianthus  sp.) ;  dandelion;  dock  (Rumex crispiis) ;  thistle  (Carduus) 
sp.);  white  clover  {Trifolium  repetis) ;  red  clover  (Trifolium  pratense) ; 
alfalfa  (Mrdicago  saliva).  The  following  were  but  slightly  injured: 
plantain  {Plantago  major) ;  sheep  sorrel  {Oxalis  violacea) ;  prairie 
rose;  lamb's  quarters  {Chenopodium  album).  Grasses  in  general, 
including  the  grains  (wheat,  oats,  corn,  barley,  and  speltz  were  sprayed 
in  our  experiments)  were  none  of  them  seriously  injured. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Station,  salt  has  thus  far  proved  the  best  spray 
tested  for  Canada  thistle,  poison  iv}'',  yarrow,  and  horse-nettle.     In  the 


WEED  POISONS  227 

Northwest,  sodium  arsenite  (U  pounds  sodium  arsenite  in  50  gallons 
water)  is  given  first  rank.  Salt  is  probably  the  most  efifective  to  destroy 
dandelion  and  some  other  weeds.  Iron  sulfate  is  very  satisfactory  to 
kill  mustard  weeds,  ragweed,  white-top,  yarrow,  and  we  believe  a  great 
many  other  broad-leaved  weeds.  Neither  the  salt  nor  the  iron  sulfate 
is  regarded  as  offering  any  risk  of  application  to  pastures  in  which  stock 
is  running.  Sodium  arsenite  is  a  very  active  poison,  and  rather  dan- 
gerous for  that  reason.  Calcium  chlorid  (of  same  strength  as  common 
salt  solution)  has  done  very  well  where  tested,  but  appears  to  be  slightly 
inferior  to  salt.  Copper  sulfate  solutions  may  be  used  in  grain  fields 
for  mustards,  especially,  but  owing  to  the  poisonous  nature  of  the 
copper  sulfate,  it  has  a  very  narrow  range  of  application. 

Experiments  by  the  Cornell  Station  gave  the  following  general  con- 
clusions :  Wild  mustard  growing  with  cereals  or  peas  can  be  destroyed 
with  a  solution  of  copper  sidfate,  without  injury  to  the  crop.  A  3  per 
cent  solution  (about  10  pounds  to  the  barrel,  or  40  gallons  of  water),  at 
the  rate  of  40  to  50  gallons  per  acre,  gives  very  satisfactory  results. 

The  following  notes  on  the  effect  of  the  copper  sulfate  solution  on 
different  plants  are  from  observations  and  reports  from  various  sources: 

"  Plants  reported  killed  by  copper  sulfate  solutions :  wild  mustard, 
wild  radish,  wild  barley,  penny-grass  (if  young),  shepherd's  purse,  wild 
buckwheat,  lamb's  quarters,  ragweed,  sow-thistle,  hemp-nettle,  bind- 
weed, dock,  dodder. 

"Plants  reported  severely  injured;  curly  dock,  black  bindweed, 
dandelion,  sow-thistle,  and  senecio. 

"  Plants  reported  as  not  injured :  wild  rose,  poppies,  pigweed, 
spurge,  corn-flower,  field-thistles,  chamomile,  couch-grass,  bent-grass, 
and  horsetails. 

"  Crops  that  may  safely  be  sprayed :  all  cereals,  as  wheat,  rye,  bar- 
ley, and  corn ;  the  grasses ;  peas ;  sugar  beets. 

"  Crops  that  are  killed  or  severely  injured  by  the  copper  sulfate 
solution:  beans,  potatoes,  turnips,  rape." 

Charlock,  known  also  as  kale  or  wild  mustard  (Brassica  Sinapistrutn), 
is  easily  destroj^ed  in  oat-,  wheat-,  or  other  grain-fields  by  spraying  with 
a  solution  of  1  pound  of  copper  sulfate  in  4  to  6  gallons  of  water  (2  to  3 
per  cent  solution).     A  force  pump  should  be  used,  supplied  with  fine 


:>28  WEEDS 

nozzles.  Tli(»  treat  incut  is  most  ofToctivoly  made  when  the  Rrain  is 
A  to  ()  inches  tall,  since  at  this  stage  tlie  larRC  charlock  leaves  spreading 
alx)ve  the  grain  are  easily  covered  by  the  spray.  About  one  i)arrel  of 
the  solution  (30  to  50  gallons)  suffices  to  cover  an  acre  and  destroy  the 
charlock,  and  this  amount  causes  little  or  no  damage  to  the  grain. 
This  simie  treatment  is  reported  to  be  more  or  less  effective  against  a 
variety  of  other  common  grain-field  weeds.  The  wild  turnip  {Brassica 
rnmpcatris)  and  some  allied  cruciferous  weeds  are  less  easily  killed 
because  the  spray  does  not  adhere  to  their  smooth  leaves. 

When  to  apply  icccd  sprays  (Ohio  Station). 

In  practice,  the  time  of  applying  sprays  needs  to  be  adjusted  to  the 
condition  of  the  growing  crop,  and  the  relative  development  of  the  weeds 
to  l)e  killed.  It  seems  probable  that  very  early  spraying  will  be  less 
effective  than  sjiraying  after  the  weeds  have  developed  a  fair  supply  of 
leaves.  The  first  sjiraying  should  be  made  not  later  than  the  beginning 
of  bloom.  Repeated  applications  need  to  be  made  as  often  as  a  new 
supply  of  leaves  is  developed,  provided  the  condition  of  the  host  crop 
j)erinits  this.  In  grain-fields,  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  on  prac- 
tically all  weeds,  when  only  a  single  spraying  is  to  be  made,  to  apply 
the  s[)ray  ju.st  as  the  crop  is  ready  to  occupy  the  land.  With  mustards, 
this  will  find  some  already  in  bloom.  With  ragweed,  it  is  best  to  spray 
before  the  stems  of  the  plants  become  hardened.  With  other  weeds,  of 
which  the.se  two  are  the  type,  as  well  as  with  these,  it  is  often  profitable 
to  make  an  extra  earlier  spi-aying  than  that  designated.  For  perennial 
sow-thistle,  wild  lettuce,  and  orange  hawkweed,  the  spraying  in  grain- 
fields  should  precede  the  blooming  of  the  plants,  and  in  cases  of  bad 
infestation  with  perennial  sow-thistle  or  the  golden  hawkweed,  two 
sprayings  .'^hould  be  made  before  the  grain  occupies  the  land.  It  is 
not  clear  just  what  can  be  done  in  the  handling  of  bindweeds  in  grain- 
fields,  but  similar  principles  will  apply.  For  spraying  in  timoth}'  or 
other  grass  meadows  to  kill  white-top,  yarrow,  self-heal,  ox-ej'e  daisy, 
and  a  number  of  meadow  weeds,  the  principle  is  similar  to  that  stated 
for  grain-fields,  namely,  to  spray  thoroughly  just  before  the  grass  begins 
heading  out.     This  will  })e  during  late  May  and  early  June  for  Ohio. 

In  spraying  pastures  to  check  weeds,  the  maximum  returns  will 
usually  come  from  a  beginning  application  in  late  June  or  early  July 
before  many  weeds  are  coming  to  bloom.     After  the  initial  application, 


THE  KINDS   OF   WEEDS  229 

the  spraying  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  there  is  development  of 
new  foliage  to  a  marked  degree. 

In  general,  better  results  are  secured  from  applications  made  in 
cloudy  weather,  although  any  weather,  except  that  followed  by  rain, 
is  satisfactory. 

Treatment  for  Particular  Weeds 

Poison  %and  similar  woody-rooted  pests  can  be  eradicated  by  cutting 
off  the  tops  in  hot,  dry  weather  in  midsummer  and  pouring  a  saturated 
solution  of  caustic  soda  about  the  roots.  The  arsenical  solutions  men- 
tioned above  can  be  used,  but  are  generally  objectionable  because  they 
render  the  soil  sterile  for  so  long  a  period  thereafter. 

Prickly  lettuce  (Lactuca  Scariola),  called  also  milk-thistle,  English 
thistle,  and  compass  plant.  Biennial  or  annual.  Mow  the  plants 
repeatedly  as  they  first  begin  to  blossom.  Thorough  cultivation  with 
a  hoed  crop  is  most  effective.  Mow  and  bum  mature  plants.  Most 
frequently  introduced  as  an  impurity  in  clover,  millet,  and  the  heavier 
grass  seeds. 

Bracted  plantain  (Plantago  aristata).  Annual.  Employ  hand 
pulling  and  burning.  If  well  established,  a  series  of  hoed  crops  may  be 
necessary  to  eradicate.  In  permanent  pasture,  mow  the  plants  as  the 
seed  stalks  first  appear. 

Horse  nettle  (Solanum  Carolinense).  Perennial.  Keep  the  plants 
mown  to  prevent  seed  production.  To  destroy  the  roots,  practice 
clean  cultivation  and  grubbing  or  spudding  to  prevent  any  develop- 
ment above  ground.  A  thick  growth  of  grain  will  weaken  the  roots. 
After  the  grain  is  cut,  the  land  should  be  immediately  plowed  and 
harrowed  repeatedly,  and  then  sown  to  a  winter  crop.  Then  follow 
with  a  hoed  crop. 

Buffalo  bur  (Solanum  rostratum).  Annual;  subdued  by  preventing 
seed  production  by  mowing  as  often  as  the  yellow  blossoms  appear. 

Spiny  amaranth  (Amarantus  spinosus).  An  annual,  subdued  by 
preventing  seed  production  by  thorough  cultivation,  mowing,  or  grub- 
bing out  the  plant  before  the  flower  spikes  develop.  An  intertilled 
crop  followed  by  a  winter  crop  will  keep  down  the  weed. 

Spiny  cocklebur  (Xanthium  spinosum).  Annual;  maybe  choked 
down  by  any  quick-growing  crop  that  will  crowd  and  shade  it.  In 
permanent  pastures  and  waste  places  mow  the  plants  twice  a  year,  in 


230  WEEDS 

August  and  September,  or  cut  them  out  with  hoe  or  spud  in  May  and 
June. 

Chomlrilla  (Chondrilla  juncea).  Biennial.  Destroyed  by  cultiva- 
tion and  fertilizers  to  encourage  the  growth  of  desirable  grasses. 

Wild  carrot  (Daucus  Carota).  Biennial.  In  permanent  pastures, 
mow  persistently  as  the  flowers  appear.  Cutting  the  roots  well  below 
the  surface  and  hand  })ulling  are  effective.  Thorough  cultivation 
subdues  it. 

Wild  oats  (Avena  fatua).  Annual.  Stir  the  land  when  it  is  warm  and 
moist  to  cause  the  seeds  to  germinate,  then  cultivate  to  kill.  Keep  the 
ground  occupied  or  stirred.  Omit  oats  from  the  rotation.  Plow 
shallow  in  late  fall.  In  the  spring,  plow  deep  and  summer  fallow, 
keeping  the  ground  clean.  Plant  to  grain  the  next  season  without 
replowing.  Then  plow  deep  early  the  next  fall.  Then  repeat  the 
fallow,  followed  by  grain  two  years  later,  again  without  replowing. 

False  flax  (Camelina  sativa).  Annual.  Omit  winter  wheat  and 
rye  from  the  rotation,  and  raise  crops  that  will  permit  full  cultiva- 
tion. Hoed  crops  are  best,  as  they  induce  the  seeds  to  germinate.  If 
well  established  in  permanent  pastures,  plow  and  cultivate  the  land. 

Mustard,  Charlock  (Brassica  Sinapistrum).  An  annual,  destroyed 
by  early  cultivation.  Destroyed  by  spraying,  when  the  plants  are 
just  beginning  to  bloom,  with  iron  sulfate,  copper  sulfate,  common 
salt,  and  sodium  arsenite.  Use  75-100  pounds  of  iron  sulfate  in  52 
gallons  of  solution  per  acre;  of  copper  sulfate,  12-15  pounds  to  each 
52  gallons  of  water ;  common  salt,  ^  barrel  to  each  52  gallons  of  water ; 
sodium  arsenite,  ll  pounds  to  each  52  gallons  of  water.  Spray  after  a 
rain,  or  in  a  wet  season  on  a  bright,  still  day. 

King-head,  Greater  ragweed  (Ambrosia  trifida).  Annual.  Culti- 
vate to  cause  seed  germination  a  sufficient  time  before  cropping  to  allow 
the  killing  of  the  weeds  by  a  subsequent  cultivation.  If  the  weeds  are 
large  on  sunmier  fallow,  plow  them  completely  under  or  collect  and 
burn.  Spray,  when  the  plants  are  tender,  with  common  salt,  copper 
sulfate,  iron  sulfate,  or  sodium  arsenite  at  the  same  rate  and  strengths 
as  for  mustard,  except  that  at  least  100  pounds  of  iron  sulfate  should 
be  used  for  each  52  gallons.     Throw  the  spray  forcibly. 

Canada  thistle  (Carduus  arvensis).  Perennial.  The  plant  should 
never  be  allowed  to  produce  seeds,  and  the  underground  stems,  which 
ire  usually  3  to  12  inches  under  ground,  must  be  removed  or  starved 


THE  KINDS   OF   WEEDS  231 

by  covering  with  straw.  Cutting  the  plants  just  before  the  budding 
period  is  destructive.  To  eradicate  by  cutting  or  cultivation  no  plant 
should  be  allowed  to  show  green  leaves  for  a  period  exceeding  a  few 
days.  The  most  effective  spray  is  sodium  arsenite,  H  to  2  pounds  per 
52  gallons  water ;  or  common  salt,  J  to  i  barrels  to  52  gallons  water ; 
or  copper  sulfate,  15  pounds  to  52  gallons  water;  or  iron  sulfate, 
75  pounds  to  52  gallons  of  water,  sprayed  on  twice,  one  week  apart. 
Spray  just  before  the  budding  period.  Spray  again  after  the  crop  is 
harvested.  Repeat  the  second  year.  Sodium  arsenite  is  a  very  active 
poison,  and  must  be  used  with  care. 

Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale).  Perennial.  Dig  up  with  spud 
or  strong  knife.  Keep  lawn  heavily  seeded  to  crowd  out  the 
dandelion.  Spray  with  iron  sulfate,  li  to  2  pounds  for  each  gallon  of 
water.  Spray  two  or  three  days  after  mowing  lawn,  and  do  not  again 
mow  until  two  or  three  days  after  spraying.  Spray  on  bright,  sunshiny 
days.  Heavy  wetting  within  i^wo  days  after  spraying  destroys  the 
weed-killing  power.     Spray  at  intervals  of  four  to  six  weeks. 

New  York  State  Station  (Geneva)  reports,  1911,  that  spraying 
dandelions  with  iron  sulfate  was  not  successful.  The  second  season 
of  treatment  the  grass  was  considerably  injured. 

Sow-thistle  (Sonchus  arvensis).  Perennial.  Spraying  is  not  effective. 
Practice  bare  cultivation  for  two  seasons,  allowing  no  green  leaves  to 
appear.  On  small  patches,  smother  by  covering  with  straw  or  manure. 
There  are  annual  species  of  Sonchus. 

Quack-grass  (Agropyron  repens).  Perennial.  In  small  patches, 
uproot  in  dry,  hot  weather  and  remove  all  underground  stems.  Cut 
off  closely  in  July,  and  smother  with  straw  or  manure.  In  large  areas, 
mow  when  in  blossom,  and  break  the  sod  shallow  in  mid-July.  Back- 
set in  mid-August  slightly  deeper  than  before.  Disc  and  harrow 
throughout  the  fall,  allowing  no  green  leaves  to  show.  Then  plow 
deeply  in  late  fall.  Plant  cultivated  crop  next  season,  and  dig  out 
every  blade  of  grass.  Or  sow  a  heavy  seeding  of  millet  or  other  dense- 
growing  annual  forage  late  in  May  on  a  well-prepared  seed  bed.  The 
drier  the  ground  and  the  hotter  the  weather,  the  better  the  killing 
effect  of  cultivation. 

White  daisy,  White-weed  (Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum).  Peren- 
nial. Plow  up  old  infested  meadows.  Spray  with  iron  sulfate 
at  rate  of  150  to  200  pounds  per  acre.     Spray  when  blossom  stalks 


232  WEEDS 

arc  just  fonniiif^.  Two  or  more  years  are  required  for  eradication. 
(K.  i.  Sta.). 

lilack  mustard  (Brassica  nigra)  and  unlet  mustard  (B.  arvensis). 
Annual.  Si)ray  with  iron  sulfate,  50  gallons  to  acre,  using  75  to  100 
pouniis  of  iron  sulfate,  depending  on  whether  the  plants  are  tender  and 
succulent  or  more  mature  and  hardy. 

Orange  hawkweed  (Hieracium  aurantiacum),  chickweed  (Stellaria 
nicHlia),  and  some  other  of  the  shallow-rooted  succulent  weeds  of  lawns 
and  gra.ss  lands  can  he  combated  effectively  by  the  use  of  salt,  more  so 
than  by  any  other  chemical.  Fine,  dry  salt  should  be  applied  on  a  bright, 
hot  sunnner  day  (late  June  or  early  July  best),  broadcasting  it  so  as  to 
cover  all  plants  uniformly,  since  it  kills  chiefly  by  drawing  water  from 
the  leaves.  One  to  four  quarts  of  salt  can  be  used  per  square  rod,  with 
little  or  no  permanent  injury  to  the  grass  if  on  a  strong  soil  in  the  north- 
cikstern  states.  Since  the  effect  varies  with  local  conditions,  advance 
trials  should  be  made  on  small  scale.  Following  the  application, 
the  dead  weeds  should  be  raked  out  and  a  liberal  application  of  grass- 
seed  made. 

Weeds  in  lawns. 

Weeds  usually  come  up  thickly  in  newly  sown  lawns.  They  are  to 
be  prevented  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  or  very  clean  manure 
and  clean  grass-seed.  Clean  June-grass,  or  blue-grass,  seed  is  usually 
best.  Grass-seed  should  be  sown  very  thick  —  3  to  5  bushels  to 
the  acre  —  and  annual  weeds  cannot  persist  long.  Frequent  mowings 
will  keep  those  weeds  dow^n  (except  low  growers  like  chickweed),  and 
most  spc'cics  will  not  survive  the  winter.  In  old  lawns  most  peren- 
nial weeds  can  be  kept  down  by  frequent  mowings.  Grass  can 
stand  more  cutting  than  weeds.  If  mowing  cannot  be  practiced  often 
enough  for  this  purpose,  the  weeds  may  be  cut  off  below  the  surface 
with  a  long  knife  or  spud,  and  the  crowns  are  then  readily  pulled  out- 
Or  a  little  sulfuric  acid  or  other  herljicide  may  be  poured  on  the  crown 
of  each  plant. 

It  will  usually  be  found  that  weedy  lawns  are  those  in  which  the  sod  is 
poor  and  thin.  The  fundamental  remedy,  therefore,  is  to  secure  a  strong 
sod.  This  is  done  by  raking  or  harrowing  over  the  lawn  in  late  spring, 
when  it  is  somewhat  soft,  and  sowing  a  liberal  dressing  of  chemical 


LAWNS  AND   LICHEN  233 

fertilizer  and  grass-seed.  Roll  the  land  down  level.  All  poor  spots  in 
lawns  should  be  repaired  in  this  manner  every  year.  The  use  of  fresh 
and  coarse  stable  manure  on  lawns  should  be  discouraged,  both  be- 
cause it  is  offensive  and  because  it  generally  abounds  in  weeds. 

Moss  on  lawns  and  walks. 

In  damp  and  shady  places,  and  also  in  sterile  places,  moss  may  ap- 
pear on  walks  and  lawns.  If  the  conditions  cannot  be  improved,  the 
following  treatments  may  be  tried :  — 

One  pound  oil  of  vitriol  (sulfuric  acid)  to  ten  quarts  of  water.  Wet 
the  surface  thoroughly,  being  careful  not  to  sprinkle  edgings  or  good 
sod. 

In  early  spring  when  the  ground  is  soft,  work  it  backwards  and  for- 
wards with  a  long-toothed  rake,  in  order  to  bring  the  moss  to  the 
surface.  Clear  away  the  moss,  and  leave  the  ground  untouched  for  a 
fortnight.  Early  in  March  repeat  the  operation,  and  about  the  middle 
of  that  month  apply  a  dressing  of  rich  compost,  which  may  consist  of 
any  old  rubbish  well  decomposed,  adding  one-sixth  of  fresh  lime.  Mix 
with  compost  a  few  days  before  using.  Cover  the  ground  with  the 
compost  at  the  rate  of  200  barrow-loads  per  acre,  passing  it  through 
a  1-inch  sieve,  to  save  the  trouble  of  rolling.  Rake  it  evenly 
over  the  surface,  and  when  dry  seed  down.     An  English  method. 

Endeavor  to  improve  the  sod,  as  recommended  on  page  232,  and 
thereby  drive  out  the  moss.  In  shady  places,  where  grass  will  not  grow, 
plant  some  shade-loving  plant,  as  periwinkle  (Vi7ica  minor),  lily-of- 
the- valley,  violets,  moneywort  {Ltjsimachia  nummularia),  or  species 
of  carex.  Note  the  ground-cover  plants  that  grow  in  shady  places  in 
the  region. 

Moss  or  Lichen  on  Trees 

Moss  on  fruit-trees  is  usually  an  indication  of  lack  of  vigor.  Culti- 
vate and  prune.  Wash  the  trees  with  soap  or  lye  washes.  Scrape 
off  the  bark,  exercising  care  not  to  expose  the  "  quick,"  or  the  tender 
inner  bark.  A  good  scraper  is  made  of  a  small  and  much-worn  hoe 
with  the  handle  cut  to  about  two  feet  long. 

The  moss  is  readily  destroyed  by  bordeaux  mixture  and  other  good 
fungicides. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Pests  and  Nuisances 

Various  kinds  of  mammals  and  birds  become  plagues  and  nuisances 
at  times,  sometimes  destroying  plants,  sometimes  annoying  human 
brings ;  and  with  these  may  be  included  mosquitoes  and  flies. 

Hoaniiiig  cats  are  often  nuisances  that  demand  control.  A  tres- 
pas.sing  cat  should  be  considered  as  much  a  transgressor  as  a  trespass- 
ing dog  or  chicken  or  goat,  —  and  perhaps  even  more  so  if  the  neighbor- 
hood is  choice  of  its  music.  Owners  of  cats  are  under  just  as  much 
responsibility  to  keep  their  cats  at  home  as  to  keep  their  horses  or 
pigs  at  home ;  if  they  cannot  keep  them  at  home,  they  should  not  be 
allowed  to  have  them. 

A  clean  and  tidy  place  harbors  few  pests.  In  general,  if  the  plan- 
tation is  free  of  litter,  and  the  adjacent  fields  contain  no  harbors  of 
brush,  mice  and  rabbits  are  rarely  annoying  to  orchards.  In  hard 
winters,  with  deep  snow,  these  animals  are  more  destructive  than 
in  open  winters.  Rabbits  browse  young  growth  of  nursery  stock 
and  small  trees.  Sheep  and  hogs  rarelj^  girdle  trees  if  they  are 
given  sufficient  food  and  water,  the  latter  being  especially  important. 

Mice  and  Rats 

To  prevent  mice  from  girdling  trees  in  winter. 

In  hecling-in  young  trees  in  the  fall,  do  not  use  straw  or  litter,  in 
which  mice  can  make  their  nests.  In  orchards,  see  that  tall  grass,  corn- 
husks,  or  other  dry  materials  do  not  gather  about  the  trees  in  fall.  If 
danger  from  mice  is  apprehended,  tramp  the  first  snow  firmly  about 
the  trees,  in  order  to  compact  the  grass  and  litter  so  that  mice  cannot 
find  shelter. 

Where  the  paper-birch  grows,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  place  sections  of 
birch-bark  from    limbs  or  small    trunks   about  the  base  of   the  tree,, 

234 


TO   KEEP   MICE  AND    RATS   AWAY  235 

These  sections  roll  tightlj^  about  the  tree,  and  yet  expand  so  readily 
with  the  growth  of  the  tree  that  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain,  al- 
though it  is  advisable  to  remove  them  each  spring,  so  that  they  will 
not  become  a  harboring-place  for  insects.  Tie  thin  strips  of  wood,  as 
laths  or  shingles,  about  the  tree.  Common  window-screen  placed 
about  the  tree  is  effective  and  safe.  Remove  in  spring,  as  it  is  likely 
to  attract  borers.  Tarred  paper  is  sometimes  advised  to  keep  away 
mice  and  borers,  but  it  is  very  likely  to  kill  the  bark,  especially  on 
3''0ung  trees,  if  tied  on,  or  if  left  on  in  warm  weather. 

Washes  to  protect  trees  from  mice. 

Wash  the  trees  wdth  some  persistent  substance  in  which  is  placed 
paris  green,  Maynard  finds  the  following  substances  useful  for  holding 
the  poison :  portland  cement  of  the  consistenc}'  of  common  paint ; 
Portland  cement  10  parts  and  gas- tar  1  part ;  portland  cement  10 
parts  and  asphaltum  1  part ;  portland  cement  10  parts  and  Morrill's 
tree-ink  1  part. 

Lime-wash,  to  which  is  added  a  little  sulfur,  tobacco-decoction,  and 
soapsuds. 

Carbonate  of  baryta  for  rats  and  mice. 

Sugar  and  oatmeal  or  wheat  flour,  of  each  6  ounces ;  carbonate  of 
baryta,  \  pound ;  oil  of  anise-seed,  enough  to  give  the  mixture  a  pretty 
strong  odor. 

This  remedy  is  frequently  made  simply  of  oatmeal  and  barium- 
carbonate,  1  part  poison  to  8  of  oatmeal,  the  combined  materials 
being  made  into  a  stiff  dough  by  the  use  of  water.  This  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  w^orking  so  slowly  that  the  victims  generally  leave  the 
premises  in  search  of  water. 

Tartar  emetic  for  rats  and  mice. 

Tartar  emetic,  1  part ;  oatmeal  or  flour,  4  parts ;  beef  or  mut- 
ton suet  enough  to  make  all  into  a  paste. 

Strychnine  solution  for  mice. 

Mice  have  been  successfully  poisoned  by  the  use  of  wheat  soaked  in 
strychnine  solution.     (See  ground  squirrel  remedies,  p.  241.) 


236  PESTS  AND   NUISANCES 

Camphor  for  rats  and  mice. 

Mix  a  fi'W  pieces  of  camphor  with  vegetable  seeds,  to  repel  vermin. 

French  paste  for  rats  and  mice. 

Oatmeal  or  wheat  flour,  3  j)ounds ;  powdered  indigo,  \  ounce ;  finely 
powdered  white  arsenic,  4  ounces  ;  oil  of  anise-seed,  2  dram.  Mix,  and 
add  of  mehed  beef  suet  or  mutton  tallow  2i  pounds,  and  work  the 
whole  uj)  into  a  paste. 

Conunercial  forms  of  phosphorus  are  popular  as  exterminators  of 
vermin. 

To  protect  seed-corn  from  burrowing  animals  {chiefly  field  mice). 

Drop  poisoned  bait  into  small  holes  made  into  runways,  then  cover 
the  holes.  Corn  or  wheat  treated  as  for  ground-squirrels  is  effective. 
Or  the  grain  may  be  moistened  with  water  containing  a  little  gum 
aral)ic,  and  then  dusted  with  ordinary  white  arsenic.  The  grain  may 
be  allowed  to  dry  before  using.  To  prepare  a  bait  that  will  work  in  a 
planter,  it  is  recommended  to  dissolve  one-eighth  of  an  ounce  of  strych- 
nia sulfate  in  two  quarts  of  hot  water,  preferably  rain  water.  Soak 
the  corn  in  this  for  forty-eight  hours,  and  then  spread  it  out  and  dry 
thoroughly.  A  teaspoonful  of  coal-tar  to  a  peck  of  dampened  grain 
seems  to  be  effectual  protection. 

Rabbits 

Wash  for  keeping  rabbits,  sheep,  and  mice  away  from  trees. 

Some  writers  recommend  fresh  lime,  slaked  with  soft  water  (old 
soa|)-suds  are  best) ;  make  the  wash  the  thickness  of  fence  or  house 
wash.  When  1  peck  of  lime  is  used,  add,  when  hot,  \  gallon  crude 
carbolic  acid,  \  gallon  gas-tar,  and  4  pounds  of  sulfur.  Stir  well.  For 
MHnmer  wash  leave  gas-tar  out,  and  add  in  place  of  it  1  gallon  of  soft 
scjap.  To  keep  rabbits  and  sheep  from  girdling,  wash  late  in  fall,  or 
alx)ut  the  time  of  frost,  as  high  as  one  can  reach. 

Blood  for  rabbits. 

Hlood  smeared  upon  trees,  as  high  up  as  rabbits  can  reach,  will 
generally  keep  them  away. 


TO  KEEP   RABBITS  AWAY  237 

To  drive  rabbits  from  orchards. 

Dip  rags  in  melted  sulfur,  and  then  secure  them  to  sticks  which  are 
stuck  promiscuously  through  the  orchard. 

Another  wash  to  protect  trees  from  rabbits. 

Fresh  cow  dung,  1  peck;  quick-lime,  i  peck;  flowers  of  sulfur, 
^  pound ;  lampblack,  i  pound.  Mix  the  whole  into  a  thick  paint  with 
urine  and  soapsuds. 

California  rahbit-wash. 

Commercial  aloes,  1  pound  to  4  gallons  of  water,  both  sprinkled  on 
leaves  and  painted  on  the  bark,  gives  a  bitter  taste,  which  repels  rabbits. 

California  rabbit  poisons. 

1.  Pieces  of  watermelon,  canteloupe,  or  other  vegetables  of  which 
they  are  fond,  may  be  poisoned  with  strychnine  and  then  scattered 
around  the  orchard. 

2.  To  100  pounds  of  wheat  take  9  gallons  of  water  and  1  pound  of 
phosphorus,  1  pound  of  sugar,  and  1  ounce  oil  of  rhodium.  Heat  the 
water  to  boiling-point,  and  let  it  stand  all  night.  Next  morning  stir 
in  flour  sufficient  to  make  a  sort  of  paste.  Scatter  it  about  the 
place. 

3.  Another  preparation  is  \  teaspoonful  of  powdered  strychnine, 
2  teaspoonfuls  of  fine  salt,  and  4  of  granulated  sugar.  Put  all  in  a  tin 
box  and  shake  well.  Pour  in  small  heaps  on  a  board.  It  hardens  into 
a  solid  mass.  Rabbits  lick  it  for  the  salt,  and  the  sugar  disguises  the 
poison. 

Sulfur  for  rabbits. 

Equal  proportions  of  sulfur,  soot,  and  lime,  made  into  a  thick  paint 
with  cow-manure.     Smear  upon  the  trees. 

Cow-manure  for  rabbits. 

A  mixture  of  lime,  water,  and  cow-manure,  made  strong,  is  said  to 
be  an  excellent  anti-rabbit  composition. 


238 


PESTS  AND   NUISANCES 


Asafcttida  for  rabbits. 

A  toaspoonful  of  tincture  of  asafcetida  in  I  pailful  of  liquid  clay, 
mud,  or  muck  of  any  kind.  Apply  with  a  brush  to  the  stem  and 
branches  of  young  trees.     Two  or  three  applications  during  winter. 

Kansdti  methods  of  protecting  trees  from  rabbits  (Kansas  Station). 

1.  Trtippiuq. — Traps  of  various  sorts  may  be  constructed.  A 
simplo  and  successful  method  is  to  sink  a  barrel  in  the  ground  level 
with  its  surface.  Fit  the  head  slightly  smaller  than  the  top,  and  allow 
it  to  swing  freely  on  a  rod  or  old  broomstick.  Pieces  of  apple  or  grains 
of  corn  may  be  placed  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  cover,  and  when  the 
rabbit  attempts  to  get  these,  the  lid  tips  up,  and  he  slides  into  the 
barrel,  while  the  lid,  which  is  slightly  heavier  on  one  side  than  the 
other,  assumes  its  original  position.  The  heavier  side  should  strike 
against  a  heavy  nail  or  bolt  so  that  only  the  lighter  side  of  the  lid  will 
drop.      It  should  be  covered  over  with  brush  or  light,  flat  stones. 


^ 


K 

V               •  * 

\ 

/ 

c: 

^ 

\y.  ■ 

\ 

::-. 

c  d 

Fig.  5  —  Wellhouse  rabbit-trap. 


An  ingenious  trap  for  catching  rabbits  has  been  designed  by  Walter 
Wellhoase,  and  u.sed  with  remarkable  success  by  him  in  his  orchards 
(Fig.  5).  The  trap  consists  of  a  box  made  of  fence  boards  (old  ones 
proferr(Ml).  six  inches  w'uXv  and  one  inch  thick.  The  boards  are  cut 
twenty-two  inches  long,  and  the  top  and  bottom  boards  are  nailed  on  to 


RABBIT   TRAP  239 

the  side  boards,  thus  making  the  opening  four  inches  wide  and  six  inches 
high.  The  door,  D,  is  made  of  wire,  shaped  as  shown  in  fig.  d,  and  liung 
with  two  staples,  cc,  to  the  under  side  of  the  top  board.  To  prevent 
the  rabbit  from  pushing  the  door  open,  a  strip  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
square  is  inserted  in  the  opening  and  nailed  to  the  bottom  board,  as 
shown  in  fig.  a,  and  in  part  in  fig.  d.  The  door  must  be  made  long 
enough  to  reach  well  below  this  catch,  as  shown  in  fig.  d.  The  trigger 
is  made  of  wire,  bent  as  shown  in  figs,  h  and  c,  and  hung  loosely  with 
two  staples  to  the  center  of  the  top  board.  These  staples  must  be 
carefully  placed,  to  allow  the  trigger  to  be  pulled  forward  far  enough 
so  that  the  door  will  rest  upon  it  when  the  trap  is  set,  and  also  to  allow 
the  loop  in  the  trigger.  A,  fig.  c,  to  be  pushed  against  the  back  of  the 
trap  by  the  rabbit  when  it  is  sprung,  thus  preventing  its  being  bent. 
To  operate  the  trap,  push  the  door,  D,  inward,  and  with  the  forefinger 
catch  the  hooked  end  of  the  trigger,  B,  fig.  c,  and  pull  it  forward  until 
the  door  rests  upon  the  wire  above  the  hook.  The  rabbit  enters  the 
trap,  prompted  by  curiosity  or  otherwise,  just  as  he  enters  a  hollow 
log,  and  thinks  no  more  of  the  wire  trigger  than  he  would  of  a  small 
piece  of  brush  which  he  must  push  out  of  his  way.  As  soon  as  he 
touches  the  trigger,  the  door  drops  and  the  rabbit  is  caught.  No  bait 
is  used,  and  the  trap  cannot  easily  be  sprung  by  birds  or  wind.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  all  staples  are  loosely  set,  so  that  the  trigger 
slides  easily  and  the  door  will  drop  of  its  own  weight.  If  new  boards 
are  used,  it  would  be  well  to  stain  with  some  dark  coloring  material 
which  is  not  offensive  to  the  rabbit's  delicate  sense  of  smell. 

2.  Wrapping.  —  When  one  has  only  a  few  trees,  such  as  fruit  or 
shade  trees,  the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  wrap  them.  An  ordinary 
tree  veneer  which  is  made  of  very  thin  wood  may  be  purchased  from 
any  seed  store  or  nursery  company.  This  fits  closely  about  the  body 
of  the  tree,  and  will  enlarge  as  the  tree  grows.  However,  during  the 
summer  it  may  offer  a  harbor  for  injurious  insects,  and  should  remain 
on  the  tree  only  during  the  winter.  Trees  may  be  wrapped  with  bur- 
lap, corn-stalks,  or  ordinary  lath.  The  only  caution  with  any  of  these 
is  to  remove  them  when  the  tree  resumes  growth  in  the  spring.  Ordi- 
nary wire  screen  answers  very  well  as  a  protection  for  the  tree. 

3.  Repellents.  —  The  tree  may  be  covered  as  far  as  the  rabbit  can 
reach  with  blood.  The  entrails  and  blood  of  the  rabbit  itself  rubbed 
over  the  tree  is  quite  effective,  but  is  very  apt  to  be  washed  off  by  rain. 


240  PESTS  AND   NUISANCES 

A  concoction  of  tallow  and  tobacco  smeared  on  to  the  trees  acts  as  a 
repellent.  However,  where  there  arc  a  great  many  trees,  and  especially 
small  trees,  such  as  honey  locust,  elm,  and  others,  used  as  windbreaks, 
it  is  out  of  the  question  to  treat  each  individual  tree  by  hand.  In  this 
case,  a  spray  applied  by  a  hand  pump  will  be  found  effective.  The 
common  lime  and  sulfur  spray  used  to  destroy  the  San  Jos^  scale  has 
IxMMi  recommended,  and  can  be  applied  with  an  ordinary  spray  pump. 
Mix  together  dry,  fresh  hydrated  or  ground  lime,  4  pounds;  powdered 
sulfur,  3  pounds.  Add  water  to  form  a  thin  paste,  and  boil  from  one-half 
to  one  hour,  or  until  the  mixture  becomes  a  reddish  amber  color.  Dilute 
to  10  gallons,  spra\^  on  to  the  trees  w-hile  the  liquid  is  still  warm.  This 
spray  is  excellent  for  the  trees  as  well,  but  must  not  be  applied  to  the 
trees  while  they  are  in  leaf. 

Commercial  aloes  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  four  gallons  of  water 
sprayed  on  to  the  trees  gives  the  bark  and  leaves  a  bitter  taste  which 
repels  rabl)its. 

A  spray  made  of  buttermilk  and  common  stove  soot  has  proven 
quite  satisfactory  here.  Buttermilk,  1  gallon ;  common  stove  soot, 
i  pound.  Boil  for  twenty  minutes.  Keep  well  stirred  to  prevent 
clogging  the  pump. 

4.  Poisoning.  —  Much  may  be  done  in  eradicating  this  pest  with 
poison.  The  "  Wellhouse  "  poison  is  made  as  follows :  Sulfate  of 
.strychnine,  1  part;  borax,  ^  part ;  white  syrup,  1  part;  water, 
10  parts.  Put  the  mixture  into  a  jug  or  large  bottle,  and  shake  well. 
Cut  fresh  twigs  —  apple  w\ater  sprouts  are  best  —  and  with  a  small 
brush  paint  tliem,  especially  over  the  terminal  bud,  with  the  above 
[)reparati()n.  Scatter  the  twigs  in  the  runways  and  about  the  trees 
where  the  rabbits  feed.  Stock  or  fowls  will  not  molest  this  poison,  and 
it  is  siiid  that  dogs  may  eat  the  dead  rabbits  and  suffer  no  ill  effects. 

The  Western  Australia  Department  of  Agriculture  recommends  a 
similar  poison.  Di.ssolve  U  ounces  strychnine  in  1  quart  of  vinegar; 
<lilute  with  5  gallons  of  water;  add  2  pounds  of  flour  and  1  pound  of 
sugar ;  stir  well   and   apply  to  twigs  as  recommended  above. 

A  jam  made  of  fruit  and  sugar  is  readily  eaten  by  the  rabbits.  Chop 
apples  or  melons  into  small  cubes.  Add  sugar  equal  to  one-half  the 
weiglit  of  the  fruit.  Boil  until  the  mass  forms  a  thick  jam.  Add 
strychnine,  either  powdered  or  di.s.solved,  at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  to 
25  pounds  of  the  jam,  and  mix  thoroughly. 


RABBITS   AND    GROUND   SQUIRRELS  241 

To  remedy  the  injury  done  by  mice,  rabbits,  and  squirrels. 

1.  Pare  and  clean  the  wound,  and  cover  it  thickly  with  fresh  cow- 
dung,  or  soft  clay,  and  bind  it  up  thoroughly  with  a  cloth.  Grafting- 
wax  bound  on  is  also  good.  Complete  girdling,  when  done  late  in 
spring  —  when  settled  weather  is  approaching  —  can  be  remedied  in 
this  way. 

2.  Insert  long  scions  over  the  wound,  by  paring  them  thin  on  both 
ends,  and  placing  one  end  under  the  bark  on  the  upper  edge  of  the 
wound  and  the  other  under  the  bark  on  the  lower  edge.  Wax  thor- 
oughly the  points  of  union,  and  tie  a  cloth  band  tightly  about  the  trees 
over  both  extremities  of  the  scions. 

Ground  Squirrel  or  Spermophile  Remedies 

1.  Secure  5  quarts  of  clean  wheat ;  scald  with  water;  drain.  Take 
I  cup  of  white  sugar,  dissolve  with  sufficient  water  to  make  a  syrup ;  add 
1  ounce  powdered  strychnine,  stir  thoroughly  until  a  thin  paste  is  formed. 
Pour  this  on  the  damp  wheat.  Stir  thoroughly  for  at  least  15 
minutes.  Add  1  pint  powdered  sugar,  stir ;  add  5  to  10  drops  of  rho- 
dium and  5  to  10  drops  of  oil  of  anise-seed.  Place  a  few  grains  in  each 
squirrel-hole,  putting  it  as  far  in  as  possible. 

2.  Dissolve  U  ounces  of  strychnia  sulfate  in  a  quart  of  hot  water. 
Add  a  quart  of  molasses,  —  molasses,  sorghum,  or  thick  sugar  and 
water,  —  and  a  teaspoonful  of  oil  of  anise.  Thoroughly  heat  and 
mix  the  liquid.  While  hot  pour  it  over  a  bushel  of  clean  wheat 
and  mix  completely.  Then  stir  in  two  or  more  pounds  of  fine  corn- 
meal.  The  quantity  of  corn-meal  will  depend  on  the  quantity  of  extra 
moisture  present.  There  should  be  enough  to  wet  ev^ery  grain  of  the 
wheat,  and  no  more.  Let  the  poisoned  grain  stand  over  night,  and  dis- 
tribute it  in  the  early  morning  of  a  bright  day.  A  tablespoonful  is 
placed  near  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  scattered  in  two  or  three  little 
piles.  The  best  time  to  use  this  or  other  poisons  is  in  early  spring, 
when  the  ground-squirrels  are  hungry  from  their  winter  fast,  and  when 
the  destruction  of  the  old  ones  before  the  young  are  born  will  greatly 
lessen  the  numbers  of  the  pests. 

3.  Bisulfid  of  carbon  is  also  largely  used.  A  small  quantity  is 
poured  into  the  burrow,  and  the  hole  is  immediately  closed  securely 
with  dirt. 


1>42  PESTS    AND   NUISANCES 

4.  Tyiiij^  lu'wspapcrs  al)out  trees  in  sucli  manner  as  to  allow  the 
upper  part  of  the  pai)er  to  project  loosely  a  few  inches  frightens  the 
squirrels  away. 

Moles 

Moles  are  rather  easily  poisoned  by  inserting  in  the  runways  corn 
in  the  milk  stage,  freshly  cut  from  the  ear,  and  poisoned  with  strychnine 
solution. 

Moles  li\'e  in  loose  and  sandy  land.  If  the  place  is  watched,  they 
may  be  tlestroyed  when  they  are  heaving  their  burrows.  Mole-traps 
are  on  the  market.     (See  gophers,  p.  243.) 

Prairie-dogs 

Prairie-dogs  may  be  destroyed  by  much  the  same  means  as  are 
ground  squirrels.  (See  ground  squirrel  remedies,  p.  241 ;  and  wood- 
chuck  or  ground-hogs,  p.  243.) 

Poisoning  b}^  grain  soaked  in  strychnine  solution  has  proved  most 
successful.  The  following  method  has  been  devised  and  used  by  the 
Kansas  Experiment  Station :  The  mixture  is  in  the  form  of  a  syrup, 
composed  of  the  following  ingredients  (for  1  quart) :  1  ounce  strychnia 
sulfate  (powdered),  1  ounce  potassium  C3^anide,  li  ounces  alcohol,  1  pint 
syrup.  One  ounce  of  green  cofTee-berries  is  mixed  with  the  white  of  one 
egg,  and  allowed  to  stand  at  least  fourteen  hours.  The  strychnia  is 
di.s,solved  in  a  half-pint  of  boiling  water.  The  potassium  cyanide  is  dis- 
solved in  a  (juarter-pint  of  hot  water  and  allowed  to  cool.  Add  a  little 
warm  water  to  the  mixture  of  coffee  and  eggs,  and  mix  it  with  the  po- 
tassium cyanide.  Then  strain  this  mixture  through  a  coarse  sieve  into 
the  mixing  vessel,  and  add  the  syrup.  Mix  the  alcohol  with  the  hot 
solution  ')f  strychnine,  and  add  it  to  the  other  mixture.  Stir  all 
thoroughly.  (Jne  quart  of  the  mixture  is  sufficient  to  poison  a  half- 
bushel  of  wheat  or  kafir.  The  mixture  must  be  thoroughly  stirred 
before  it  is  poured  over  the  grain.  Two  or  three  pounds  of  fine  corn-meal 
are  stirred  in  with  the  grain  to  take  up  the  extra  moisture.  On  a 
bright,  warm  morning  in  .January,  February,  or  March,  place  half  a 
traspoonful  or  less  of  the  bait  in  two  or  three  little  piles  at  the  outside 
of  each  burrow  occupied  by  prairie-dogs.  A  half-bushel  of  grain  should 
I)oison  5(X)  to  GfX)  holes. 


VARIOUS  PESTS  243 

Woodchucks  or  Ground-hogs 

These  animals  are  readily  trapped  at  the  mouths  of  their  burrows. 
They  are  also  easily  killed  by  the  vapor  of  bisulfid  of  carbon,  the  liquid 
being  poured  on  a  handful  of  moss,  cotton,  or  other  absorbent  material, 
and  pushed  down  the  burrow,  all  openings  being  at  once  closed.  The 
vapor  is  heavier  than  air,  and  will  settle  to  the  bottom,  where  it  will 
kill  any  animal  present. 

Pocket-gophers 

These  pests  are  readily  destroyed  by  poisoned  grain,  corn  being  espe- 
cially recommended  for  the  purpose,  although  various  other  materials 
may  be  employed.  A  dibble,  made  by  adding  a  metal  point  to  a  spade 
handle,  is  used  to  make  holes  in  the  runways,  into  which  the  poisoned 
bait  is  dropped.  "  A  skillful  operator,"  writes  D.  E.  Lantz,  "  can  go 
over  twenty  to  forty  acres  of  badly  infested  land  in  a  day,  and,  if  the 
work  is  done  carefully,  at  a  time  when  the  pocket-gophers  are  active, 
all  the  animals  should  be  destroyed  by  the  first  application  of  poison." 
The  pests  may  also  be  destroyed  by  trapping  and  by  fumigation  with 
carbon  bisulfid. 

Wolves   and   Coyotes 

These  animals  are  most  easily  destroyed  by  hunting  out  the  breed- 
ing-places in  early  spring  and  killing  the  litters  of  pups.  They  may 
also  be  poisoned  and  trapped. 

Muskrats 

Powdered  strychnia  sulfate  sweetened  with  powdered  sugar  or 
commercial  saccharin  and  sprinkled  over  freshly  cut  pieces  of  apple, 
carrot,  or  ripe  squash  has  proved  effective.  Crystals  of  the  same  poison 
may  be  inserted  in  the  bait  with  a  knife. 

„.   ,       .  Pestiferous  Birds 

Bird  poisons. 

1.  Place  a  shallow  box  on  the  end  of  a  pole,  and  put  it  four  or  five 
feet  from  the  ground  to  keep  the  poison  out  of  the  way  of  domestic 
fowls.  In  the  box  sprinkle  corn-meal  and  a  very  little  strychnine, 
which  mixture  the  birds  eat.     It  will  not  hurt  dogs  or  cats  to  eat  the 


244  PESTS   AND   NUISANCES 

(load  bird,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  not  enough  poison  absorbed  by 
the  bird.     (California.) 

2.  Put  the  .strychnine  in  pieces  of  apples,  and  stick  them  on  the 
ends  of  limbs  of  the  trees.     (California.) 

3.  Poison  for  English  sparrows. 

Di.ssolve  arsenate  of  soda  in  warm  water  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to 
one  j)int ;  pour  this  upon  as  much  wheat  as  it  will  cover  (in  a  vessel  which 
can  be  closed  so  as  to  prevent  evaporation),  and  allow  it  to  soak  for  at 
l(>ast  twenty-four  hours.  Dry  the  wheat  so  prepared,  and  it  is  ready 
for  u.se.  It  should  be  distributed  in  winter  in  places  where  the  sparrows 
congregate.      Wheat  maj^  be  similarly  ]ireparcd  with  strychnine. 

4.  Put  i  ounce  of  strychnia  sulfate  into  f  of  a  gill  of  hot  water, 
and  l)oil  until  dissolved.  Moisten  Ih  teaspoonfuls  of  starch  with  a  few 
drops  of  cold  water,  add  it  to  the  poison  solution,  and  heat  till  the  starch 
thickens.  Pour  the  hot  poisoned  starch  over  a  quart  of  wheat,  and  stir 
until  every  kernel  is  coated. 

To  protect  fruits  from  birds. 

One  of  the  best  devices  is  mosquito-bar  spread  over  the  bushes  or 
trees.  For  ))ush-fruits  and  small  trees  the  expense  is  not  great.  There 
is  a  commercial  netting  made  for  the  purpose. 

Have  a  taxidermist  mount  several  hawks,  and  place  them  in  natural 
j)()sitions  in  the  trees  or  vines. 

In  large  plantations  of  cherries  or  other  fruits  subject  to  the  depre- 
dations of  l)irds,  the  injury  is  generally  proportionately  less  than  in 
small  areas.  Some  cherry-growers  plant  early  sweet  varieties  to  feed 
tlio  liirds,  which,  getting  their  fill,  give  less  attention  to  the  main  crop. 
P>irds  prefer  the  Russian  mulberry  to  cherries,  and  an  occasional  tree  in 
the  cherry  orchard  may  protect  the  crop. 

Plantings  of  mulberry,  buckthorn,  elder,  and  chokeberry  may  serve 
to  protect  raspberries  and  blackberries.  For  strawberries,  sweet  early 
varieties  which  are  left  to  ripen  on  the  vines  have  been  recommended. 

To  protect  newly  planted  seeds  from  birds. 

Coat  the  seeds  with  red  lead  by  moistening  the  seeds  slightly  and 
stirring  in  red  lead  until  all  the  seeds  are  thoroughly  coated.  Let  the 
seeds  dry  for  two  or  three  hours  before  sowing. 


BIRDS,   MOSQUITOES  1J4,-, 

Several  ways  to  protect  corn  from  crows. 

Dip  the  kernels  in  coal-tar,  and  then  dust  them  with  plaster ;  tar  the 
seed;  plant  it  deeply;  scatter  soaked  corn  over  the  field  to  attract 
attention  from  the  young  plants ;  hang  streamers  of  cloth  from  twine 
strung  about  the  field  on  poles;   or  use  scare-crows. 

To  protect  young  chickens. 

Young  chickens  may  be  protected  from  hawks  by  covering  their 
runways  with  fine  wire  netting.  Chickens  are  comparatively  safe 
when  king-birds  or  purple  martins  breed  about  the  farm-yard,  as  these 
birds  drive  hawks  away.  They  should  be  encouraged.  Some  hawks 
are  frightened  away  by  guinea-hens.  A  pair  of  ospreys  or  fish-hawks 
nesting  near  a  farmhouse  will  keep  other  hawks  away. 

Mosquitoes 

The  discovery  that  certain  mosquitoes  carry  the  organisms  of  malaria 
and  other  diseases  has  started  a  crusade  against  these  pests.  We 
now  feel  that  mosquitoes  must  be  controlled,  both  as  a  sanitary  meas- 
ure and  as  a  relief  against  the  insects  themselves. 

The  chief  mode  of  attack  is  to  destroy  their  breeding-places.  They 
breed  only  in  standing  water.  Draining  the  breeding-places,  or  filling 
them  up  and  emptying  all  receptacles  in  which  water  stands,  is  the 
first  thing  to  be  considered.  The  big  gray  mosquitoes  that  breed  in 
tide  marshes  are  specially  pestiferous.  They  propagate  in  the  brackish 
pools.  These  pools  should  be  filled  or  drained,  or  else  the  tide  dyked 
out  so  that  the  pools  may  dry. 

The  second  thing  to  consider,  if  the  above  cannot  be  carried  out,  is 
to  cover  the  breeding-pools  with  oil  so  that  mosquito  larvae  may  be 
deprived  of  air  (they  rise  to  the  surface  to  breathe). 

In  fountain  tanks,  lily  ponds,  and  other  water  areas  that  are  to  be 
retained,  the  mosquitoes  may  be  kept  down  by  stocking  with  fish  that 
eat  the  larvse  or  wrigglers. 

Kerosene  for  mosquitoes  (Needham). 

An  ounce  of  kerosene  to  every  15  square  feet  of  surface  is  about  the 
right  proportion,  according:  to  Howard.    The  fihn  of  oil  will  be  retained 


246  PESTS  AXD   XUISANCES 

for  about  two  weeks.  The  grade  of  kerosene  known  as  "  light  fuel  oil  ^ 
is  best. 

Any  kerosene  will  kill  aquatic  plants,  if  sprayed  on  them.  It 
should  be  poured  on  surface  of  water  in  cultivated  ponds  and  spread 
with  a  broom  or  mop.  It  should  be  applied  oftener  than  once  in  two 
weeks  in  such  c:ises,  and  in  much  less  quantity.  One-fourth  as  much 
twice  as  ofton  will  probably  be  equally  effective. 

It  is  best  not  to  use  kerosene  at  all  on  ornamental  jwnds ;  it  is  un- 
sightly ;  it  smells  badly ;  it  kills  all  larvce  that  require  air  derived  from 
the  surface,  including  those  of  many  of  the  higher  diptera  which  as  adults 
are  useful  flower  pollinators ;  it  endangers  the  plants  even  when  most 
carefully  applied,  to  say  nothing  of  smearing  them. 

Fishes  available  for  deMruction  of  mosquito  larva;  (Xeedham). 

1.  Goldfish  eat  eggs  by  preference,  also  the  larva^.  They  thrive 
in  any  wann  pool,  or  even  in  cisterns  with  scant  light ;  eat  prepared 
foods,  so  can  be  readily  supplied  with  supplemental  food  if  necessary. 
They  are  easily  obtained  in  the  market,  and  are  ornamental.  Must 
be  taken  indoors  for  winter. 

2.  Top  minnows  are  natural  enemies  of  mosquitoes  in  native  water. 
They  are  hardy  and  long-lived ;  but  they  are  not  on  the  market,  and 
have  to  be  sought  with  a  seine.     Not  especiallj^  ornamental. 

3.  Sunfish  are  fond  of  mosquito  larva^.  They  do  well  only  in 
midst  of  aquatic  growth;  require  much  food,  and  insect  food  is  pre- 
ferred.    Ornamental. 

4.  Sticklebacks  are  most  voracious  mosquito  enemies,  and  are  also 
worthy  of  cultivation  for  their  remarkable  nest-building  habits.  Rather 
particular  as  to  conditions,  but  in  proper  pools  they  are  hardy. 

All  these  fishes  require  room  in  which  pasturage  may  grow.  A  pair 
of  the  smallest  of  them  would  probably  find  scant  natural  food  in  a 
square  rod  of  water  area. 

Hihernating   mosquitoes. 

Some  mosquitoes  hibernate  in  cellars,  and  from  them  the  breeding 
starts  in  spring.  Cellars  may  be  fumigated  with  powdered  Datura  Stra- 
monium (.limpson  weed),  or  with  culicide  (culex  is  the  generic  name  of 
the  greater  number  of  mosquitoes).  In  either  case,  according  to  J.  B. 
Smith,  the  cellar  to  be  fmnigated  should  be  as  tightly  closed  as  possible, 


MOSQUITOES  247 

to  hold  the  fumes  and  make  them  most  effective.  The  powdered 
stramonium  is  used  at  the  rate  of  eight  ounces  for  each  1000  cubic  feet 
of  space,  mixed  with  one-third  its  weight  of  saltpeter  to  facilitate  com- 
bustion. Spread  the  mass  out  on  a  tin  plate  or  stone  flag  and  light  at 
several  points  to  hasten  the  burning.  The  vapor  is  not  dangerous  to 
human  life,  so  even  if  some  escapes  into  the  rooms  above,  no  harm  will 
be  done.  If  the  cellar  is  leaky,  use  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  ad- 
vised, and  in  all  cases  keep  it  as  tightly  closed  as  possible  for  two  hours  at 
least. 

Culicide  is  made  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  carbolic  acid  crystals 
and  gum  camphor.  Melt  the  acid  crystals  over  a  gentle  heat,  and  pour 
slowly  over  the  gum.  The  acid  dissolves  the  camphor,  and  makes  a 
clear,  somewhat  volatile  liquid,  with  rather  an  agreeable  odor.  This 
solution  is  permanent,  and  may  be  kept  indefinitely  in  tight  jars.  Use 
three  ounces  of  this  culicide  for  every  1000  cubic  feet  of  space,  and 
volatilize  over  a  lamp  of  some  kind.  A  simple  and  inexpensive  appa- 
ratus for  this  purpose  (J.  B.  Smith)  consists  of  an  8-inch  section  of 
galvanized-iron  stove-pipe,  cut  so  as  to  leave  three  legs,  and  with  a 
series  of  J-inch  holes  near  the  top  to  make  an  outlet  for  the  draft. 
Upon  this  place  a  shallow,  flat-bottomed  basin  to  hold  the  culi- 
cide, and  beneath  this  use  an  ordinary  glass  or  other  alcohol  lamp. 
Two  ounces  of  culicide  may  be  evaporated  with  I  an  ounce  of  alcohol 
in  twenty-five  minutes,  and  a  larger  quantity  would  probably  re- 
quire proportionately  less  time  if  given  a  larger  evaporating  surface  in 
a  dish  of  larger  diameter  than  the  pipe.  This  combination  is  inflam- 
mable, but  not  explosive,  and  should  be  used  on  a  cement,  earth,  or  stone 
floor,  or  on  bricks  in  a  tub  of  water,  to  avoid  danger  of  fire.  The  fumes 
are  not  dangerous  to  human  life  until  they  become  very  dense,  and  such 
as  might  penetrate  into  upper  rooms  through  leaky  floors  or  doors 
would  do  no  harm  to  anything.  This  also  should  be  allowed  to  act  at 
least  two  hours  before  the  doors  are  opened  again.  Flies  and  other 
insects  succumb  as  readily  as  mosquitoes. 

Rules  for  extermination  and  prevention  of  mosquitoes.     (Anti-Mosquito 
Convention,  N.  Y.) 

Pools  of  rain  water,  duck  ponds,  ice  ponds,  and  temporary  accumu- 
lations due  to  building ;  marshes,  both  of  salt  and  fresh  water,  and  road- 


248  PESTS  AXD   NUISANCES 

siilc  drains;  i)ots,  kettles,  tubs,  springs,  barrels  of  water,  and 
other  back-yaril  eolleetions  should  be  drained,  filled  with  earth,  or 
emptiiHi. 

Running  streams  should  have  their  margins  carefully  cleaned 
and  coveretl  with  gravel  to  prevent  weeds  and  grass  at  the  water's 
eilge. 

Lily  ponds  and  fountain  pools  should,  if  possible,  be  abolished; 
if  not,  the  margins  should  be  cemented  or  careful!}'  graveled,  a  good 
stock  of  minnows  put  in  the  water,  and  green  slime  (algie)  regularly 
cleaned  out,  as  it  collects. 

Where  tanks,  cisterns,  wells,  or  springs  must  be  had  to  supply  water, 
tlie  openings  to  them  should  be  closely  covered  with  wire  gauze  (gal- 
vanized to  prevent  rusting),  not  the  smallest  aperture  being  left. 

When  neither  drainage  nor  covering  is  practicable,  the  surface  of 
the  standing  water  should  be  covered  with  a  film  of  light  fuel  oil  (or 
kerosene)  which  chokes  and  kills  the  larva?.  The  oil  may  be  poured  on 
with  a  can  or  from  a  sprinkler.  It  will  spread  itself.  One  ounce  of 
oil  is  sufficient  to  cover  fifteen  square  feet  of  water.  The  oil  sliouki 
be  renewed  once  a  week  during  warm  weather. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  cesspools.  These  pools,  when 
uncovered,  breed  mosquitoes  in  vast  numbers;  if  not  tightly  closed 
by  a  cemented  top,  or  by  wire  gauze,  they  should  be  treated  once  a 
week  with  an  excess  of  kerosene  or  light  fuel  oil. 

Certain  simple  precautions  suffice  to  protect  persons  living  in  mala- 
rial districts  from  infection  :  — 

First :  Proper  screening  of  the  house  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  the  mosquitoes  (after  careful  search  for  and  destruction  of  all 
those  already  present  in  the  house),  and  screening  of  the  bed  at 
night.  The  chief  danger  of  infection  is  at  night  (the  anopheles 
bite  mostly  at  this  time). 

Second :  The  screening  of  persons  in  malarial  districts  who 
are  suffering  from  malarial  fever,  so  that  mosquitoes  may  not  bite 
them  and  thus  become  infected. 

Third :  The  administration  of  quinine  in  full  doses  to  malarial 
patients  to  destroy  the  malarial  organisms  in  the  blood. 

Fourth :  The  destruction  of  mosquitoes  by  one  or  more  of  the 
methods  already  described. 
These  measures,  if  properly  carried  out,  will  greatly  restrict  the 


MOSQUITOES.      HOUSE-FLIES  240 

prevalence  of  the  disease,  and  will  prevent  the  occurrence  of  new 
malarial  infections. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  when  a  person  is  once  infected,  the 
organisms  may  remain  in  the  body  for  many  years,  producing  from 
time  to  time  relapses  of  the  fever. 

A  case  of  malarial  infection  in  a  house  (whether  the  person  is 
actively  ill  or  the  infection  is  latent)  in  a  locality  where  anopheles 
mosquitoes  are  present,  is  a  constant  source  of  danger,  not  only  to 
the  inmates  of  the  house,  but  to  the  immediate  neighborhood,  if 
proper  precautions  are  not  taken.  It  should  be  noted  in  this 
connection  that  the  mosquitoes  may  remain  in  a  house  through  an 
entire  winter,  and  probably  infect  the  inmates  in  the  spring  upon 
the  return  of  the  warm  weather. 


The  House-Fly  (C.  R.  Crosby) 
The  typhoid  fly,  or  house-fly  (Musca  domestica). 

For  ages  this  ubiquitous  pest  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  harmless 
though  annoying  and  unpleasant  nuisance,  and  its  presence  has  been 
tolerated  as  a  necessary  evil.  It  has  now  been  scientifically  demon- 
strated that  it  plays  an  important  role  in  the  transmission  of  certain 
intestinal  diseases,  such  as  typhoid,  cholera,  infantile  diarrhoea,  etc., 
by  carrying  infected  matter  from  the  excreta  of  patients  to  the  food  of 
healthy  persons.  It  is  now  thought  that  next  after  polluted  water  and 
contaminated  milk,  flies  are  the  most  important  factor  in  the  sprearl  of 
typhoid.  Both  in  city  and  in  country  the  presence  of  these  pests  is  a 
constant  menace  to  the  health  of  the  community. 

House-flies  breed  chiefly  in  horse  manure,  and  to  a  less  extent  in 
garbage,  human  excrement,  and  other  filth.  Each  female  lays  about 
120  eggs,  which  hatch  in  a  few  hours.  The  maggots  become 
full  grown  in  about  five  days,  and  an  equal  period  is  spent  in  the 
pupal  stage.  The  whole  life  cycle  thus  requires  only  ten  to  fourteen 
days  in  midsummer.  In  the  climate  of  Washington,  D.C.,  there  are 
twelve  or  thirteen  generations  annually.  Dr.  L.  0.  Howard  reports 
finding  1200  larvae  and  pupae  in  a  single  pound  of  horse  manure. 
The  winter  is  passed  either  as  adults  hidden  away  in  houses  or  as 
pupsB  beneath  manure  piles. 


l>r,0  PESTS   AND   NUISANCES 

( 'ontrol. 

The  house-fly  imisiuice  can  be  abated  most  easily  by  the  elimination 
of  possible  breeding-places.  The  great  majority  of  the  flies  found  in 
houses  breed  in  piles  of  horse  manure  about  near-by  stables.  Breeding 
in  such  places  may  be  easily  prevented  by  storing  the  manure,  pending 
its  removal,  in  a  dark,  fly-proof  bin.  This  receptacle  may  be  built  as  a 
lean-to  attached  to  the  stable  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  small 
screen  door.  .V  larger  door  outside  provides  for  the  removal  of  the 
contents.  The  manure  should  be  carted  away  at  least  once  a  week, 
and  spread  out  on  the  land,  where  by  drying  it  soon  becomes  unfit  for 
breeding  purposes.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  store  such  material 
in  piles  in  the  open,  they  should  be  located  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
nearest  dwelling  or  milk-house.  Flies  do  not  usually  travel  more  than 
one-fourth  mile  from  the  place  in  which  they  breed. 

When  only  two  or  three  horses  are  kept  in  a  town,  the  manure  can 
be  handled  in  regular  garbage-cans,  in  the  same  way  as  the  kitchen 
refuse  or  ashes. 

Breeding  in  manure  jVih  s  can  be  prevented  by  borax.  Sift  borax  on 
manure,  particularly  around  edges  of  pile,  immediately  after  removal 
from  barn,  thci  spritikle  with  water.   Use  fib.  borax  to  8  bu.  of  manure. 

Kitchen  refuse  and  similar  garbage  should  be  kept  in  tight  cans  and 
removed  at  frequent  intervals.  Flies  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from 
all  places  where  food  is  exposed  to  contamination,  including  kitchens, 
dining-rooms,  stores,  etc.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  protect 
milk  and  milk  utensils,  since  milk  furnishes  an  excellent  medium  for 
the  growth  of  typhoid  bacteria  and  is  a  common  source  of  infection. 

Flies  may  be  driven  from  rooms  by  leaving  one  door  open  and  darken- 
ing all  the  rest.  Then  evaporate  a  spoonful  of  carbolic  acid  over  a 
lamp,  or  burn  some  pyrethrum  insect-powder.  They  may  be  caught 
on  sticky  .sheets,  or  poisoned  with  a  sweetened  5  per  cent  solution  of 
commerical  formaldehyde. 

On  isolated  farms  each  owner  has  it  in  his  power  by  proper  measures 
in  the  dis[)()sal  of  manure  to  reduce  the  fly  nuisance  to  a  minimum.  In 
towns  the  case  is  different;   there  cooperation  is  necessary. 

In  attempting  to  reduce  the  numbers  of  house-flies  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  the  health  department  has  formulated  a  series  of  rules  which 
L.  O.  Howard  has  summarized  as  follows :  — 


HOUSE-FLIES.      PONDS  251 

"  All  stalls  in  which  animals  are  kept  shall  have  the  surface  of  the 
ground  covered  with  a  water-tight  floor.  Every  person  occupying  a 
building  where  domestic  animals  are  kept  shall  maintain,  in  connection 
therewith,  a  bin  or  pit  for  the  reception  of  manure,  and,  pending  the 
removal  from  the  premises  of  the  manure  from  the  animal  or  animals, 
shall  place  such  manure  in  said  bin  or  pit.  This  bin  shall  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  exclude  rain  water,  and  shall  in  all  other  respects  be  water- 
tight, except  as  it  may  be  connected  with  the  public  sewer.  It  shall 
be  provided  with  a  suitable  cover,  and  constructed  so  as  to  pre\eat  the 
ingress  and  egress  of  flies.  No  person  owning  a  stable  shall  keep  any 
manure  or  permit  any  manure  to  be  kept  in  or  upon  any  portion  of  the 
premises  other  than  the  bin  or  pit  described,  nor  shall  he  allow  any  such 
bin  or  pit  to  be  overfilled  or  needlessly  uncovered.  Horse  manure 
may  be  kept  tightly  rammed  into  well-covered  barrels  for  the  purpose 
of  removal  in  such  barrels.  Every  person  keeping  manure  in  any  of  the 
more  densely  populated  parts  of  the  District  shall  cause  all  such  manure 
to  be  removed  from  the  premises  at  least  twice  every  week  between 
June  1  and  October  31,  and  at  least  once  every  week  between  Novem- 
ber 1  and  May  31  of  the  following  year.  No  person  shall  remove  or 
transport  any  manure  over  any  public  highway  in  any  of  the  more 
densely  populated  parts  of  the  District,  except  in  a  tight  vehicle  which, 
if  not  inclosed,  must  be  effectually  covered  with  canvas,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  manure  from  being  dropped.  No  person  shall  deposit  maimre 
removed  from  the  bins  or  pits  within  any  of  the  more  densely  populated 
parts  of  the  District  without  a  permit  from  the  health  officer.  Any 
person  violating  any  of  the  provisions  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof, 
be  punished  by  a  fine  not  more  than  $40  for  each  offense." 


Slime  on  Ponds 

The  slime,  or  algae,  on  ponds  may  be  destroyed  by  copper  sulfate. 
The  common  spirogyra  is  dispatched  by  1  part  of  the  sulfate  to 
25,000,000  parts  of  water,  and  other  forms  by  a  stronger  solution. 
These  weak  solutions  are  little  injurious  to  the  higher  plants  and  not 
much  so  to  any  animals.  A  better  way  is  to  keep  the  toads  and  to 
let  their  tadpoles  eat  the  algae.  Red-bellied  minnows  would  also 
help. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Fungicides  and  Germicides  for  Plant  Diseases 
By  Donald  Reddick 

Plant  diseases  are  caused  by  parasitic  fungi  or  by  bacteria,  or 
otlier  vegetable  parasites;  or  by  forms  of  physiological  disturbance, 
l-^ac'li  tlisease  calls  for  special  treatment.  Most  plant  diseases  must 
be  preventetl,  not  cured. 

It  should  be  understood  that  spraying  is  only  one  of  the  control 
measures  effective  against  plant  diseases.  Many  diseases  are  not 
iitTectetl  by  spraying,  though  perhaps  more  are  susceptible  to  this 
treatment   than  to  any  other. 

A  satisfactory  fungicide  must  be  one  that  does  not  injure  the  plants 
and  at  the  same  time  is  effective  against  the  parasite.  For  spraying,  ad- 
ditional recjuirements  are  imposed;  it  should  not  dissolve  readily  in  rain 
water;  it  should  adhere  to  foliage  and  fruit;  in  some  cases  it  should 
!)(•  colorless  in  order  not  to  make  ornamentals  more  unsightly  than 
when  diseased.  The  fungicide  which  has  been  used  most  for  general 
purposes  is  bordeaux  mixture.  Lately  some  other  preparations,  par- 
ticularly lime-sulfur  combinations,  have  come  into  use,  and  in  many 
ca.ses  are  supi)lanting  bordeaux.  There  are  in  addition  a  large  number 
of  other  substances  which  have  fungicidal  value  and  are  in  more  limited 
use  for  specific  cases. 

Practices 

Didwijing  ajfeded  parts.  — It  is  important  that  all  affected  parts 
should  be  removed  and  burned,  if  possible.  In  the  fall  all  leaves 
and  fruit  that  have  been  attacked  by  fungi  should  be  raked  up 
and  burned.  Diseased  branches  should  be  severed  at  some  dis- 
tance below  the  lowest  visible  point  of  attack.  Fungous  dis- 
eases often  spread  rapidly,  and  prompt  action  is  usually  necessary. 
Practice  clean  and  tidy  culture. 

252 


STERILIZING  263 

Rotation  of  crops.  —  One  of  the  most  effective  and  practical  means  of 
heading  off  fungous  diseases.  Especially  applicable  to  diseases  oi 
roots  or  root-crops,  but  also  to  many  other  diseases  of  annual 
plants. 

Sterilizing  by  steam.  —  An  effective  fungicidal  practice  for  several  soil-in- 
habiting organisms  which  attack  roots  and  stems.  This  includes 
nematode  worms.  It  is  especially  applicable  in  the  greenhouse, 
where  it  may  be  applied  (a)  through  sub-irrigation  tile  or  through 
specially  laid  perforated  steam  pipes  in  the  bottom  of  the 
bed.  Cover  the  beds  with  blankets,  introduce  steam  under  pres- 
sure of  40  to  80  pounds  for  two  hours.  Insert  thermometers  at 
various  places  to  see  that  the  soil  is  being  uniformly  heated.  (6) 
A  large  galvanized  iron  tight  box  may  be  constructed  with  finely 
perforated  trays  4  to  6  inches  in  depth.  Soil  placed  in  these 
trays  and  steamed  for  two  hours  as  above  will  be  freed  from  par- 
asitic organisms.  In  this  case  the  frames  should  be  sprayed  with 
a  solution  of  formalin,  1  pint  in  10  gallons  of  water. 

Steam  sterilization  of  soil  may  be  used  on  intensively  cultivated 
areas  or  extensive  seed-beds,  A  portable  boiler  is  necessary. 
The  beds  are  sterilized  after  they  have  been  prepared  for  seed, 
and  just  before  the  seed  is  sown.  A  galvanized  pan  10  bj'  6  feet 
and  6  inches  deep  is  inverted,  and  the  edges  are  pushed  down 
into  the  soil  one  or  two  inches.  The  pan  is  connected  with  the 
steam  boiler  by  means  of  a  steam  hose  and  live  steam  is  run  into 
the  pan  for  about  forty  minutes  under  a  pressure  of  100  pounds 
and  up.  The  higher  the  pressure  the  more  thoroughly  the  soil 
will  be  sterilized. 

The  cost  of  sterilizing  is  approximately  three-fourths  of  a  cent 
the  square  foot.  It  should  be  noted  that  soil  sterilization  has  an 
invigorating  effect  on  the  plants,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  run 
greenhouses  at  a  lower  temperature  (5°-10°)  both  night  and  day. 
Field  sterilization  also  kills  weed  seeds,  and  with  the  reduction  of 
the  cost  of  weeding  makes  the  process  practicable. 

Substances 

Bordeaux  mixture.  —  A  bluish-green  copper  compound  that  settles 
out  when  freshly  slaked  lime  and  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate  (blue- 


254    Fi\\rrH'ii)f:s  and  germicides  for  plant  diseases 

stone)  art'  mixed.  Many  formulas  have  been  recommended  and 
used.  Tlie  5-5-50  formula  may  be  regarded  as  standard.  In  such 
a  fonnula  the  first  figure  refers  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  copper 
sulfate,  the  second  to  the  stone  or  hydrated  lime,  and  the  third 
to  the  number  of  gallons  of  water.  Bordeaux  must  often  be  used 
as  weak  as  2-2-50,  on  account  of  injury  to  some  plants. 

To  make  50  gallons  of  bordeaux  mixture,  proceed  as  follows:  (1) 
Pulverize  5  pounds  of  copper  sulfate  (blue  vitriol),  place  in  a  glass, 
wooden,  or  brass  vessel,  and  add  two  or  three  gallons  of  hot  water. 
In  another  vessel  slake  5  pounds  of  quicklime  in  a  small  amount 
of  water.  When  the  copper  sulfate  is  all  dissolved,  pour  into  a 
barrel  and  add  water  to  make  40  or  45  gallons.  Now  strain  the 
lime  into  this,  using  a  sieve  50  meshes  to  the  inch  or  a  piece  of 
cheese-cloth  sui)ported  by  ordinary  screening.  Stir  thoroughly, 
and  add  water  to  the  50-gallon  mark.  The  fiocculent  substance 
which  settles  is  the  effective  fungicide.  Always  stir  vigorously  before 
filling  the  sprayer.  Never  add  the  strong  lime  to  strong  vitriol. 
Always  add  a  large  amount  of  water  to  one  or  the  other  first. 
Blue  vitriol  used  alone  would  not  only  wash  off  quickly  in  a  rain, 
but  cause  a  severe  burning  of  fruit  and  foliage.  Lime  is  added  to 
neutralize  this  burning  effect  of  the  copper.  If  the  lime  were 
absolutely  pure  only  slightly  more  than  one  pound  would  be  re- 
quired to  neutralize  this  burning  effect.  For  many  purposes  an 
excess  of  lime  is  not  objectionable  and  may  be  desirable.  P'or 
nearly  ripe  fruit  and  ornamentals  an  excess  of  lime  augments 
spotting.  In  such  cases  the  least  amount  of  lime  possible  should 
be  used.     Determine  this  by  applying  the  cyanide  test  (2). 

(2)  Secure  from  the  druggist  10  cents'  worth  of  potassium 
ferrocyanide  (yellow  prussiate  of  potash)  and  dissolve  it  in  water 
in  an  S-ounce  bottle.  Cut  a  V-shaped  slit  in  one  side  of  the 
cork,  so  that  a  few  drops  of  the  liquid  can  be  obtained.  Now 
proceed  as  before.  Add  lime  with  constant  stirring  until  a  drop 
of  the  ferrocyanide  ccvises  to  give  a  reddish-brown  color. 

(3)  When  bonh^aux  mixture  is  desired  in  large  quantities,  stock 
solutions  should  be  made.  Place  100  pounds  of  copper  sulfate  in 
a  bag  of  coffee-sacking,  and  suspend  in  the  top  of  a  50-gallon 
barrel,  and  a<ld  water  to  the  50-gallon  mark.  In  twelve  to  fifteen 
hours  the  vitriol  will  be  dissolved  and  each  gallon  of  solution  will 


FUNGICIDES  255 

contain  2  pounds  of  copper  sulfate.  Slake  a  barrel  of  lime,  and 
store  in  a  tight  barrel,  keeping  it  covered  with  water.  Lime  so 
treated  will  keep  all  summer.  It  is  really  hydrated  lime.  This  is 
often  dried,  pulverized,  and  offered  on  the  market  in  paper  bags 
of  40  pounds,  each,  under  such  names  as  ground  lime,  prepared 
lime,  hydrated  lime,  etc.  If  the  paper  is  not  broken,  the  lime  does 
not  air-slake  for  a  long  time.  One  and  one  third  pounds  of  hydrated 
lime  equals  in  value  one  pound  of  quicklime.  Air  slaked  lime 
cannot  be  used  in  preparing  bordeaux  mixture. 

Arsenical   poisons  can   be   combined  with  bordeaux   mixture. 
See  Chapter  XVII,  page  290. 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.  —  For  use  on  nearly  mature  fruit  and  on 
ornamentals.  Does  not  discolor.  Weigh  out  3  ounces  of 
copper  carbonate,  and  make  a  thick  paste  with  water  in  a  wooden 
pail.  Measure  5  pints  of  strong  ammonia  (26°  Beaum6)  and 
dilute  with  three  or  four  parts  of  water.  Add  ammonia  to  the 
paste,  and  stir.  This  makes  a  deep  blue  solution.  Add  water 
to  make  50  gallons. 

Copper  carbonate.  —  For  use  in  the  above  formula,  it  may  be  obtained 
as  a  green  powder,  or  maybe  prepared  as  follows:  Dissolve  12 
pounds  of  copper  sulfate  in  12  gallons  of  water  in  a  barrel. 
Dissolve  15  pounds  of  sal  soda  in  15  gallons  of  water  (pref- 
erably hot).  Allow  the  solution  to  cool;  then  add  the  sal  soda 
solution  to  the  copper  sulfate  solution,  pouring  slowly  in  order  to 
prevent  the  mixture  from  working  up  and  running  over.  A  fine 
precipitate  is  formed  which  will  settle  to  the  bottom  if  allowed 
to  stand  over  night.  Siphon  off  the  clear  liquid.  Wash  the  pre- 
cipitate by  adding  clear  water,  stirring,  and  allowing  to  settle. 
Siphon  off  the  clear  water,  strain  the  precipitate  through  muslin, 
and  allow  it  to  dry.  This  is  copper  carbonate.  The  above 
amounts  will  make  about  6  pounds. 

Copper  sulfate.  —  See  Sulfate  of  Copper,  p.  258. 

Corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bichloride) .  — Used  for  disinfecting 
pruned  stubs  and  cleaned-out  cankers,  at  the  rate  of  one  part  in 
1000  parts  of  water.  Can  be  secured  from  the  druggist  in  tablet 
form  in  vials  of  25  each,  and  costing  25  cents.  One  tablet 
makes  a  pint  of  solution.  Make  and  store  solution  in  glass  and 
label  poison. 


2r)r»     FUNGICIDES    AND    GERMICIDES   FOR   PLANT  DISEASES 

Formalin  (forty  per  rent  solution  of  formaldehyde  gcOs  in  water). — 
A  pungent,  clear  liquid,  very  irritating  to  eyes  and  nose.  Ob- 
tained at  any  drug  store  at  about  40  cents  per  pint.  Used  for 
potato-scab,  oat  smut,  bunt  in  wheat,  soil  disinfection,  etc. 

Lime.  —  OfTerod  for  sale  in  the  following  forms,  (n)  Ground  rock 
or  ground  limestone  ;  air-slaked  lime  is  of  the  same  comj)osition, 
i.e.  a  carbonate  of  calcium,  (b)  Lump,  barrel,  stone,  or  quick  lime  ; 
this  is  burned  limestone,  and  should  preferably  test  90  per  cent 
oxide  of  calcium,  (c)  Prepared,  ground,  or  hydrated  lime  ;  this  is 
water  or  steam-slaked  quicklime,  dried  and  pulverized.  Used  as 
an  applicant  to  the  soil  to  correct  acidity  (p.  77),  for  club-root  of 
cabbage,  etc.,  and  for  preparing  spray  mixtures. 

Lime-sulfur  (see  page  294).  —  In  the  many  possible  combinations, 
lime-sulfur  is  coming  to  be  equally  as  important  as  bordeaux  mix- 
ture, in  the  control  of  many  plant  diseases. 

(a)  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  dry  lime  and  powdered  sulfur 
is  often  dusted  on  plants  for  surface  mildews. 

(h)  A  paste  of  equal  parts  of  lime,  sulfur,  and  water.  This  is 
painted  on  the  heating  pipes  in  the  greenhouse,  and  is  valuable 
for  keeping  off  surface  mildews. 

(1)  Home-boiled  dilute  lime-sulfur.  This  solution  has  been 
widely  used  in  the  past  as  a  dormant  spray,  particularly  for  San 
Jos^  scale  and  peach  leaf-curl.  It  is  likely  to  be  supplanted  by 
(2)  or  (3).     For  preparation  see  page  295. 

(2)  Home-boiled  concentrated  lime-sulfur.  —  When  a  great 
deal  of  spraying  is  to  be  done,  a  concentrated  lime-sulfur  solution 
may  be  boiled  at  home  and  stored  in  barrels  to  be  used  as  needed. 
For  method  of  preparation  see  page  295. 

Test  with  a  Boaume  hydrometer,  which  has  a  scale  reading  from 
25°  to  35°.  Dilutions  are  reckoned  from  a  standard  solution 
testing  32°.  If  the  solution  tests  only  28°,  it  is  not  as  strong 
as  standard,  and  cannot  be  diluted  as  much  as  a  solution  testing 
32°.  The  table  on  opposite  jiagc  shows  the  pro{)er  dilution  for 
solutions  testing  25°  to  35°  Beaum6. 

Decimals  are  given  in  all  cases,  but  for  practical  purposes  the 
nearest  even  gallon  or  half  gallon  can  be  used,  unless  appliances  for 
more  accurate  measurement  are  at  hand.  It  is  understood  in 
making  all  dilutions  that  water  is  added  to  one  gallon  of  the  con- 


LIME-SULFUR 


257 


centrate  to  make  the  stated  amount.     Do  not  measm-e  out  the 
stated  amount  of  water  and  add  the  concentrated  solution  to  it. 


1-10 

1-15 

1-20 

1-25 

1-30 

1-40 

1-50 

1-60 

1-75 

1-100 

25"^ 

7.4 

11 

14.7 

18.4 

22.1 

29.5 

36.8 

44.2 

55 

73 

26" 

7.7 

11.6 

15.4 

19.3 

23.2 

30.9 

38.6 

46.3 

58 

77.2 

27" 

8.1 

12.1 

16.1 

20.2 

24.3 

32.4 

40.5 

48.5 

60.6 

80.7 

28" 

8.4 

12.7 

16.9 

21.1 

25.4 

33.8 

42.3 

50.7 

63.5 

84.5 

29° 

8.8 

13.2 

17.6 

22.1 

26.5 

35.3 

44.2 

53 

66.3 

88.2 

80" 

9.2 

13.9 

18.4 

23 

27.6 

36.9 

46.1 

55.3 

69 

92 

31" 

9.6 

14.4 

19.3 

24 

28.8 

38.4 

48 

58 

72 

96 

32" 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

50 

60 

75 

100 

33" 

10.4 

15.6 

20.8 

26 

31.2 

41.5 

52 

62.4 

78 

104 

34-^ 

10.8 

16.2 

21.6 

26.8 

32.4 

43.2 

54 

64.7 

80.8 

108 

35" 

11.2 

16.8 

22.4 

28 

33.4 

44.9 

56 

67.4 

84.2 

112 

(3)  Commercial  concentrated  hme-sulfur.  —  As  manufactured 
and  placed  on  the  market  is  a  clear  amber  liquid,  and  should  test 
32°  to  35°  Beaume.  It  costs  about  20  cents  per  gallon  retail, 
and  comes  ready  to  pour  into  the  spray  tank.  For  ap{)le  and 
pear  diseases.  Arsenate  of  lead  can  be  used  with  this  .solution,  and 
increases  its  fungicidal  value. 

(4)  Self-boiled  lime-sulfur.  This  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the 
two  substances,  and  is  really  not  boiled,  the  heat  being  supplied  by 
the  slaking  lime.  In  a  small  barrel  or  keg  place  8  pounds  of 
good  quicklime.  Add  water  from  time  to  time  in  just  sufficient 
amounts  to  prevent  burning.  As  soon  as  the  lime  begins  to  slake 
well,  add  slowly  (preferably  through  a  sieve)  8  pounds  of 
sulfur  flour.  Stir  constantly,  and  add  water  as  needed.  As  soon 
as  all  bubbling  has  ceased,  check  further  action  by  adding  a 
quantity  of  cold  water,  or  pour  into  a  barrel  or  tank  and  make 
up  to  50  gallons.  Keep  well  agitated.  Very  effective  against 
peach  scab  and  brown  rot.  Several  other  formulas  have  been 
used :  10-10-50  and  5-5-50.  Arsenate  of  lead  can  be  used  with 
this  mixture. 

By  using  boiUng  water  and  allowing  the  hot  mixture  to  stand  for 
half  an  hour,  a  stronger  spray  mixture  of  the  above  can  be  secured. 
It  cannot  be  used  safely  on  peaches,  but  has  been  used  success- 
fully on  grapes  for  surface  mildew.    The  addition  of  sulfate  of 


258     FUNGICIDES   AND    GERMICIDES   FOR    PLANT  DISEASES 

iron  or  sulfate  of  copper,  one  or  two  pounds  to  50  gallons,  has 
been    used    for  apple   rust. 

Potassium  suljid  (liver  of  sulfur).  —  Simple  solution  3  ounces  in  10 
gallons  of  water.  For  mildew  in  greenhouses,  on  rose-bushes  and 
other  ornamentals. 

Htsin-sal-suila  sticker.  —  Resin,  2  pounds ;  sal  soda  (crystals),  1  pound, 
water,  1  gallon.  Boil  until  of  a  clear  brown  color,  i.e.  from  one  to 
one  and  a  half  hours.  Cook  in  an  iron  kettle  in  the  open.  Add 
this  amount  to  50  gallons  of  bordeaux.  Useful  for  onions,  cab- 
bage, and  other  plants  to  which  spray  does  not  adhere  well. 

Sulfate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol).  —  Dissolve  1  pound  of  pure  sulfate  of 
copi)er  ill  25  gallons  of  water.  A  specific  for  peach  leaf-curl. 
Apply  once  before  buds  swell  in  the  spring.  Cover  every  bud. 
For  use  in  preparing  bordeaux  mixture.  Costs  from  5  to  7 
cents  per  pound,  in  quantity. 

Sulfate  of  iron  (copperas).  —  A  greenish  granular  crystalline  substance. 
Dissolve  100  pounds  in  50  gallons  of  water.  For  mustard  in 
oats,  wheat,  etc.,  apply  at  the  rate  of  50  gallons  per  acre.  Also 
for  anthracnose  of  grapes  as  a  dormant  spray. 

Sulfur  (ground  l)rimstone,  sulfur  flour,  flowers  of  sulfur).  — Should  be 
99  i)er  cent  pure.  Valuable  for  surface  mildews.  Dust  on  dry 
or  ill  the  greenhouse  used  in  fumes.  Evaporate  it  over  a  steady 
heat,  as  an  oil  stove,  until  the  house  is  filled  with  vapor.  Do  not 
heat  to  the  burning  point,  as  burning  sulfur  destroys  most  plants. 
To  prevent  burning,  place  the  sulfur  and  pan  in  a  larger  pan  of 
sand  and  set  the  whole  upon  the  oil  stove. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

Plant  Diseases 
By  Donald  Reddick 

Some  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  the  organism  causing  a  disease  is 
asually  necessary  in  order  successfully  to  combat  it  and  prevent  its 
ravages.  Those  diseases  caused  by  powdery  mildew  fungi  (which  are 
surface  infestations)  can  be  cured.  Practically  all  others  must  be 
prevented. 

Fungi  attacking  parts  of  plants  above  ground  are  usually  dissemi- 
nated by  means  of  spores.  Water  is  often  necessary  to  liberate  the 
spores  from  the  fungus  proper,  and  is  nearly  always  necessary  to  permit 
spore  germination  and  infection  of  other  plants.  Heavy  dew  sometimes 
furnishes  sufficient  moisture,  but  prolonged  drizzling  rains  are  more 
favorable.  For  this  reason  a  fungicide,  in  order  to  be  effective  against 
such  parasites,  must  be  applied  before  the  rain.  If  it  is  going  to  rain 
to-morrow,  spray  to-day.  But  how  know  whether  it  is  going  to  rain? 
This  can  best  be  told  from  a  study  of  the  United  States  weather  maps, 
which  are  printed  and  distributed  from  the  many  weather  stations,  or 
else  appear  in  the  daily  papers.  Storm  periods,  indicated  by  a  "  low  " 
barometer,  travel  quite  regularly  from  west  to  east,  and  are  usually 
accompanied  or  followed  by  rain.  This  can  be  determined  by  noting 
the  amount  of  precipitation,  if  any,  in  the  wake  of  the  storm.  Local 
conditions  are  often  a  factor  to  be  considered.  A  few  minutes'  study  of 
the  weather  map  each  day  will  soon  make  one  reasonably  efficient  in 
predicting  the  weather.     See  Chap.  I. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  a  definite  system  of  naming  plant  diseases  has 
not  been  formulated.  Diseases  of  plants  of  a  similar  nature  should 
bear  the  same  common  name.  The  term  "blight"  is  commonly  used 
for  many  kinds  or  forms  of  diseases.  It  might  well  be  restricted  to 
bacterial  diseases  like  fire-blight  of  pear  or  bean  blight.  When  some 
definite  system  of  naming  diseases  is  adopted,  it  is  likely  that  a  tabula- 

259 


2C)0  PL  A  XT  DfSKASES 

tion  of  methods  of  control  will  1)0  somewhat  simplified,  for  if  the 
term  "blight"  is  restricted  to  bacterial  diseases  of  the  nature  of  pear 
blight,  it  will  be  understood  that  certain  control  measures,  such  as 
spraying,  will  not  be  effective.  At  present,  each  case  must  be  con- 
sidered separately,  and  in  the  following  pages  the  popular  names  are 
used.  These  names  are  followed  by  the  technical  botanical  name 
of  the  organism  causing  the  disease,  in  italics,  and  this  by  a  brief 
description  of  the  disease,  the  most  prominent  symptom  being  men- 
tioned first. 

Certain  General  or  Unclassified  Diseases 

Damping-off.  — A  term  applied  to  the  decay  of  young  seedlings  or  cut- 
tings at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  trouble  is  due  to 
the  action  of  various  organisms,  especially  Pythium  deBaryanum, 
Phylopht flora  cadorum,  Rhizodonia  sp.,  etc.  Wet  soil,  confined 
atmosphere,  and  crow'ded  plants  are  conducive  to  damping-off. 

Control.  —  Steam-sterilize  seed  or  cutting  beds.  Sterilize  nursery 
see<l  beds  with  formalin,  using  1  gallon  of  1  per  cent  solution  to 
the  square  foot,  i.e.  1  pint  of  formalin  in  12-15  gallons  of  water. 

(Edema  or  Dropsy.  —  A  disorder  of  various  plants  under  glass,  as 
tomatoes,  violets,  geraniums,  which  have  insufficient  sunlight, 
stimulating  temperature  and  soil,  and  too  much  moisture.  It  has 
also  been  observed  on  twigs  of  the  apple.  It  is  usually  indicated 
by  elevated  corky  or  spongy  points  or  masses,  much  resembling 
fungous  injury.  The  leaves  curl.  The  only  remed}'  is  to  improve 
conditions  under  which  the  plants  are  grown. 

Smuts  of  cereals.  —  Practically  every  cereal  is  attacked  by  a  specific 
smut  fungus,  and  most  of  them  by  two  perfectly  distinct  species. 
These  smuts  are  confined  to  a  single  species  of  cereal,  and  never 
cross  from  one  to  another.  Some  of  the  smuts  produce  a  loose 
black  spore-mass  (loose  smuts),  while  in  others  (covered  smuts) 
the  seed  coat  of  the  grain  is  not  affected,  so  that  the  smut  is  not 
detected  until  the  grain  is  broken  open.  The  most  important 
difference  to  be  noted,  however,  is  the  method  of  wintering.  In 
some  the  spores  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  seed  and  infect  the 
young  seedling  plant  at  the  time  of  germination,  while  in  the  other 
case  the  spores  fall  upon  the  blossoms  and  grow  down  into  the  seed 
directly,  there  lying  dormant  until  the  seed  is  planted. 


THE  SMUTS  2G1 

Control.  —  The  treatment  is  very  different  in  the  two  cases.  If 
the  spore  is  on  the  surface  of  the  seed,  it  may  be  killed  with  forma- 
lin; but  if  the  seed  is  infected  internally,  a  different  treatment  is 
necessary.  The  formalin  treatment  is  very  simple  and  inex- 
pensive. Select  a  clean  place  on  the  barn  floor,  and  heap  the 
seed  grain  upon  it.  Make  a  solution  of  formalin  at  the  rate  of  1 
pint  of  formalin  to  50  gallons  of  water.  Use  as  many  gallons  of 
this  solution  as  there  are  bushels  of  grain  to  treat.  Shovel  the 
grain  over,  and  at  the  same  time  spray  the  formalin  over  with  a 
sprinkling  pot.  Shovel  over  twice,  and  then  cover  two  hours 
or  over  night  with  blankets  or  canvas.  Spread  out  the  grain  to 
dry.  Make  allowance  for  swelling  of  the  seed  at  the  rate  of  one 
peck  per  acre.  When  the  infection  is  internal,  the  hot  water  process 
of  treatment  must  be  resorted  to.  Obtain  a  reliable  thermometer, 
and  make  arrangements  to  keep  a  quantity  of  water  at  perfectly 
uniform  temperature.  Soak  the  seed  in  water  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature for  five  to  seven  hours.  Then  place  it  in  small  loose 
sacks  or  wire  baskets  containing  not  more  than  a  half  peck  each, 
and  allow  to  drain.  Provide  two  tubs  or  vats,  of  30  or  40  gallons 
capacity,  which  can  be  heated,  or  provide  in  addition  an  iron 
kettle  for  heating  a  quantity  of  water.  Heat  the  water  in  the 
two  vats  to  the  temperature  indicated  below.  Immerse  the 
drained  sacks  of  seed  in  tub  1  to  remove  the  chill,  then 
suspend  in  tub  2  for  the  indicated  length  of  time.  Keep  the 
temperature  of  tub  2  constant  by  applying  heat  or  adding 
small  amounts  of  boiling  water.  Treat  for  the  indicated  time, 
remove,  and  dry. 
Barley.  Covered  Smut  (Ustilago  hordei).  —  The  covering  is  thin 
and  easily  broken,  and  when  old  may  resemble  loose  smut.  Seed- 
ling infection. 

Control.  —  Formalin,  as  indicated  above. 
liOOSE  Smut  (  Ustilago  nuda).  —  The  smutted  heads  are  loose  and 
black  from  the  first.     Flower  infection. 

Control.  —  Hot  water,  as  indicated  above.  The  temperature  of 
tub  2  should  be  127°  F.,  and  the  seed  should  be  left  in  fifteen 
minutes.  If  the  temperature  of  tub  2  varies  slightly  from  127°, 
the  length  of  treatment  should  be  lengthened  or  shortened  ac- 
cordingly as   the  temperature   is  below  or  above   that  desired. 


262  PLANT  DISEASES 

In  no  case  should  the  temperature  go  above  129°  or  below  124°  F. 
This  treatment  will  also  be  effective  for  covered  smut. 
Oats.     Loose  Smuts    (  Ustilago  avencB  and  Ustilago  levis).  —  Both 
characteristic  loose  smuts,  and  both  seedling  infection. 

Control.  —  Formalin   treatment,   as  indicated   above. 
Whe.\t.     Stinking  Smut  or  Bunt  {Tilletia  foetens).  —  Can  be  de- 
tected in  the  field  by  the  flaring  of  the  beards,  in  the  bin  by  the 
peculiar    fetid    odor  and   by   breaking  open   the   kernels.     The 
seed  coat  remains  intact.     Seedling  infection. 

Control.  —  Formalin  treatment,  as  above. 
Loose  Smut  {Ustilago  tritici). — Characteristic  loose  smut  of  the 
head  appearing  at  blossoming  time.     Flower  infection. 

Control.  —  Hot  water,  as  indicated  above.  The  temperature 
of  tub  2  should  be  129°  F.,  and  the  seed  should  be  left  in  ten 
minutes.  If  the  temperature  of  tub  2  should  go  above  129°  or 
fall  below  126°  the  length  of  treatment  should  be  diminished  or 
increased  accordingly.  In  no  case  should  the  temperature  go 
above  131°  or  l)elow  124°  F. 
Storage  rots  (Penicillium  e.xpansum  and  P.  italicum).  —  These  two 
organisms  are  responsible  for  much  of  the  rot  appearing  in  storage 
or  transportation.  The  former  is  the  common  one  on  apples,  the 
latter  on  oranges  and  lemons.  These  organisms  are  not  able  to 
enter  through  an  unbroken  surface,  but  are  dependent  upon 
cracks,  bruises,  scab  spots,  etc. 

Control.  —  Avoid  puncturing  the  skins  with  shears  or  finger- 
nails, handle  and  pack  with  care  to  prevent  bruises,  and  spray  to 
prevent  scab  spots.  Store  at  a  temperature  of  32°.  In  making 
long  distance  shipments,  pre-cool  the  car  and  ship  under  ice. 

Diseases  of  different  Plants  or  Crops 

Alfalfa.     Leaf  Spot  (Pseiidopeziza  medicagiais).  — Small  black  spots 
on  the  leaves.     Causes  the  leaves  to  turn  yellow  and  fall. 

Control.  —  Frequent   close  mowing   usually  holds   the  disease 

in  check. 

Dodder  (Cuscuta  epithjmum). — A  tangled   mat  of  yellow  threads 

entwining  the    alfalfa  stems.      Usually  appears  in    spots    in  the 

field  and  spreads  from  these  points.     Is  easily  spread  by  the  rake, 


APPLE  DISEASES  263 

and  especially  in  seed.     Dodder  is  not  a  fungus,  but  a  specialized 
parasitic  plant  of  the  morning-glory  family. 

Control.  —  As  soon  as  discovered,  cover  the  infested  spot  with 
straw  and  oil  and  burn.  Screen  the  alfalfa  seed  to  remove  seed  of 
dodder.  Make  a  screen  12  inches  square  by  3  inches  deep  with 
a  20  X  20  mesh  wire-cloth  made  of  No.  34  steel  wire.  Sift  each 
half  pound  of  seed  vigorously  for  one  half  minute. 
Almond.     Blight  {Conjneum  beijennkii).—^eQ  Peach  Blight,  p.  275. 

Yellows.     See  under  Peach. 
Apple.     Blight.  —  The  same  disease  as  Pear  Blight,  which  see. 

Bitter-rot  or  Ripe-rot  {Glomerella  rufomacidans).  —  Produces  a 
browning  and  drying  of  the  fruit.  Progressing  in  concentric  rings 
from  a  central  point.  Attacks  nearly  mature  fruit.  Also  occurs 
on  limbs,  where  it  produces  a  canker  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  New  York  apple-tree  canker  (p.  264). 

Control.  —  Trim  out  all  cankers  early  in  the  spring,  and  remove 
all  mummied  apples  from  the  trees.  In  addition  to  the  spray- 
ings for  apple  scab,  make  three,  four,  or  five  sprayings  with  bor- 
deaux mixture,  3-3-50,  according  to  the  severity  of  the  disease 
and  the  character  of  the  summer  as  regards  rainfall. 

Black-rot  of  fruit.  —  Fruit  stage  of  the  New  York  apple-tree  canker 
disease,   which   see. 

Blotch  (Phyllosticta  solitaria). — Attacks  fruit,  twigs,  and  leaves. 
Blotches  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  appear  on  the 
fruit.  These  often  coalesce,  and  the  fruit  often  cracks  deeply. 
Scurfy  cankers  are  formed  on  the  twigs  while  very  small ;  circular 
spots  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are  formed  on  the  leaves. 
Ben  Davis  is  especially  susceptible. 

Control.  —  Careful  pruning  to  remove  cankered  twigs.  Spray 
as  for  apple  scab  and  bitter  rot. 

Brown-rot. — See   under    Cherry  (p.  267). 

Canker.  —  Smooth  cankers  in  bark  of  trunk  and  limbs  usually  in- 
dicate blight,  rough  ones  New  York  apple-tree  canker. 

Collar-rot.  —  A  dead  area  in  the  bark  near  the  ground  ;  often 
girdles  the  tree.  Cause  not  known.  May  be  started  in  some 
cases  by  the  fire-blight  organism,  in  others  by  winter  injury.  Com- 
mon on  King,  Baldwin,  and  Ben  Davis. 

Remedy.  —  As  soon  as  noticed,  cut  away  dead  bark  and  wood 


;G4  plant  diseases 

to  the  livin<^  hcaltliy  tissue.  Swab  the  wound  with  a  solution  of 
corrosive  suhliniate,  1 :1()()0,  and  paint  over  with  a  lead  paint  which 
is  free  from  turpentine.  Slit  the  callus  on  the  ed^e  from  year  to 
year  to  make  it  spread  faster,  and  keep  dead  wood  well  protected 
with  paint. 

Crow.\-(;.\ll  (Bacterium  lumejaciens) .  —  See  under  Peach,  p.  276. 

New  York  Appij:-tree  Canker  {Spharopsis  malorum).  —  The 
fungus  causing  the  tlisease  attacks  limbs,  causing  roughened 
cankers  and  often  gii'dling  the  limb  ;  attacks  leaves,  causing  a 
reddish  brown  leaf-spot,  and  on  the  fruit  produces  a  black  rot. 
Alnmdant  on  Twenty  Ounce. 

Control.  —  Remove  and  burn  old  cankers.  Clean  out  and  dis- 
infect small  cankers  as  for  collar-rot.  Soak  old  limbs  well  with 
spray  mixture  when  spraying  for  scab.  Spraying  as  for  apple  scab 
usually  controls  black  rot  of  fruit,  though  in  the  Ozark  region 
a  late  spraying  may  be  advisable  for  leaf-spot.  Cultivate 
thoroughly. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Sphcerothecn  leucotricha) .  —  Attacks  nursery 
stock,  covering  the  leaves  with  a  grayish  white,  powdery  mildew. 
Also  on  leaves  and  twigs  of  new  growth  in  the  orchard,  often 
causing  the  leaves  to  fall. 

Remedy.  —  Lime-sulfur,  1-40,  as  applied  for  scab  is  a  specific. 

Rust  {Gijmnosporangium  jnacropus).  —  A  bright  yellow  rust  appear- 
ing on  the  young  leaves  and  fruit.  Enfeebles  the  whole  tree  and 
produces  one-sided  fruits.  It  is  known  that  one  stage  in  the  cycle 
of  the  fungus  is  the  cedar  apple,  which  occurs  on  the  red  cedar. 
Apples  are  always  infected  from  the  cedar,  never  from  apple 
to  apple. 

Control.  —  Destroy  red  cedars  in  the  neighborhood,  also  wild 
apples  and  hawthorns.     Spray  thoroughly  in  the  spring  as  for  scab. 

Scab  ( Venturia  imequalis).  Olive  green,  brownish  or  blackish 
scab-like  spots  on  leaves  and  fruit.  Arrests  growth,  and  often 
cau.ses  distortion.  In  severe  cases  may  make  the  leaves  and 
young  fruit  fall.  Makes  leaves  susceptible  to  spray  injury.  The 
fungus  is  known  to  be  dependent  upon  weather  conditions,  as  out- 
lined in  the  Ix'ginning  of  this  chapter.  The  fungus  winters  reg- 
ularly on  the  dead  fallen  leaves.  In  the  milder  climate  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  fungus  may  winter  on  the  twigs. 


APRICOT — BEAN  265 

Control.  —  Rake  and  burn  leaves,  or  plow  under  very  early 
(before  blossom  buds  open).  Spray  with  lime-sulfur  32°  Beaum^, 
1-40,  or  bordeaux,  3-3-50:  {a)  when  blossom  buds  show  pink, 
but  before  they  open ;  (6)  when  the  majority  of  petals  have  fallen ; 
(c)  three  weeks  after  h  depending  upon  the  weather ;  {d)  if  a  late 
attack  is  feared,  spray  thoroughly  before  the  fall  rains  begin. 

Apricot.     Leaf-rust.  —  See  under  Plum,  p.  279. 
Yellows.  —  See  under  Peach,  p.  276. 
Black-spot  or  Scab.  —  See  under  Peach. 

Asparagus.  Rust.  —  {Puccinia  asparagi).  A  rust  of  the  tops,  which 
is  often  so  severe  as  to  kill  them,  thus  interfering  with  root  de- 
velopment. 

Control.  —  Three  weeks  after  cutting  stops  dust  the  young  tops 
with  dry  sulfur  at  the  rate  of  ll  sacks  of  sulfur  per  acre.  This 
should  be  done  very  early  in  the  morning  while  the  dew  is 
still  on,  and  only  on  a  dewy  morning.  In  a  month  or  less  make 
another  application,  using  2  sacks  of  sulfur  per  acre.  The 
sulfur  must  go  on  in  a  dusty,  smoky  cloud  and  form  a  covering 
over  all  the  growth.  Flowers  of  sulfur  is  more  satisfactory  for 
this  work,  and  is  less  expensive  in  the  long  run.  Dusting  machines 
may  be  obtained  on  the  market. 

Barley.    Smut.  —  See   under   Smut   of   Cereals,  p.  260. 

Bean.    Anthracnose  or  Pod-spot  {Colletotrichum  lindemuthianum). — 
Reddish-brown  scab-like  spots  appearing  on  stems,  pods,  and  veins 
of  leaves,  particularly  on  yellow-podded  snap  beans.     The  fungus 
grows  through  the  pod  and  into  the  young  bean  seed.     It  lies  dor- 
mant in  the  seed,  and  becomes  active  when  the  bean  is  planted. 
Control.  —  Select  pods  which  are  free  from  the  spots  and  save 
the  seed  for  planting.     Such  seed  will  grow  a  clean  crop.     If  dis- 
ease appears  in  the  garden,  it  can  be  controlled  by  thoroughly 
hand  spraying  the  vines  from  beneath  as  well  as  above,  repeating 
the  operation  every  ten  days  as  long  as  necessary. 
Blight  {Bacterium  phaseoli).  —A  bacterial  disease.     Causes  large, 
papery  spots  on  leaves  and  watery  spots  on  pods. 
Control.  —  As  for  Anthracnose. 

Bean,  Lima.  —  Blight  (Phytophthora  phaseoli).  —  Attacks  the  pods 
in  August  and  September,  covering  them  with  a  white,  felted  coat- 
ing.    It  also  attacks  shoots  and  leaves. 


266  PLANT  DISEASES 

Control.  —  Spray    with    bordeaux,    4-4-50,    beginning     about 
August  first,  and  making  applications  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or 
two  weeks. 
Beet.     Heart-rot   {Phomn    betcc).  —  Leaves    appear  spotted  late  in 
July,  then  wilt,  and  finally  a  dry  heart  rot  appears. 

Control.  —  Destroy    infected    plants.     Practice    long    rotation. 
Treat  seed  with  formalin,  1  pint  in  30  gallons  of  water. 
Leaf-spot  (Cercospora  beticola).  —  Ashen   gray  spots  with  reddish 
borders  occurring  on  leaves.     In  advanced  stages,  leaf  becomes 
much  cracked  and  torn. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  at  frequent 
intervals. 
Scab  (Oospora  scabies).  —  Fungus  produces  a  scabby  patch  on  the 
root.     The  same  disease  as  potato  scab. 

Control.  —  Avoid  planting  beets  after  potatoes  for  several  years. 
Blackberry.  Anthracnose.  —  See  under  Raspberry,  p.  280. 
Crown-gall  or  Root-gall  (Bacterium  tumefaciens) .  —  A  bacterial 
disease  which  soon  ruins  the  bushes. 

Treatment.  —  Plow  up  and  burn  all  bushes  in  a  diseased  patch. 
Plant  clean  roots  in  a  new  place. 
Red  or  Orange  Rust.  —  See  under  Raspberry. 
Brussels  sprouts.     Club-root.  —  See  under  Cabbage. 
Cabbage.     Club-root   or   Club-foot    {Plasmodiophora  brassicce).  — 
A  contorted  swelling  of  the  roots  of  cabbage  in  the  seed  bed  or 
field,  preventing  the  plant  from  heading  and  causing  it  to  assume 
a  sickly  color.     Occurs  on  many  allied  plants  —  turnips,  cauli- 
flower, Brussels  sprouts,  chard,  radish,  wild  mustard,  etc. 

Control.  —  Destroy  affected  seedlings.  Rotate  crops,  and  do 
not  follow  with  other  susceptible  crops.  Keep  down  weeds  on 
which  disease  occurs.  Lime  the  soil  at  least  eighteen  months 
before  planting  to  cabbage,  using  at  the  rate  of  two  tons  of  quick- 
lime to  the  acre. 
Black-rot  (Bacillus  campestre).  —  The  bacteria  causing  this  disease 
get  into  the  sap  tubes,  turn  them  black,  and  cause  the  leaves  to 
drop,  thus  preventing  heading. 

Control.  —  Practice  crop  rotation.  Soak  the  seed  for  fifteen 
minutes  in  a  solution  of  mercuric  chloride,  one  tablet  in  a  pint  of 
water. 


CA  RNA  TION  —  CHERR  Y  267 

Carnation.  Rust  (  Uromyces  caryophyllinus) .  —  Produces  brown,  pow- 
dery pustules  on  stems  and  leaves. 

Control.  —  Take  cuttings  only  from  healthy  plants.  Pick  off 
diseased  leaves.  Spray  once  in  two  weeks  with  a  solution  of 
copper  sulfate,  1  pound  to  20  gallons.  Keep  water  from  leaves, 
and  grow  the  plants  at  as  low  temperature  as  is  compatible  with 
best  development. 
Stem-rot  {Rhizodonia  and  Fusarium). — The  former  produces  a 
sudden  wilting  of  the  plant,  and  the  stems  are  soon  dead  and  dry. 
The  latter  produces  a  slow  rot  of  the  heart,  one  branch  dying  at 
a  time.     The  treatment  is  the  same. 

Control.  —  In  the  field  change  the  location  every  year.     In  the 
greenhouse  sterilize  the  soil  with  steam. 
Cauliflower.     See  under  Cabbage. 

Celery.  Early  Leaf-blight  {Cercospora  apii).  —  A  spotting  and 
eventual  blighting  of  the  leaves  early  in  the  summer.  Begins  in 
the  seed-bed.  It  is  favored  by  hot  weather,  either  wet  or 
dry. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  5-3-50, 
beginning  in  the  seed  bed  and  keeping  the  new  growth  covered 
throughout  the  season. 
Late  Blight  (Septoria  petroselini  var.  apii).  —  A  fungous  disease, 
appearing  late  in  the  season,  causing  a  blight  of  the  foliage,  and 
often  destructive  after  the  celery  is  stored. 

Control.  —  As  above,  except  that  spraying  should  be  continued 
up  to  harvesting  time.  In  either  case,  the  disease  is  practically 
controlled  by  growing  the  plants  under  half  shade. 
Cherry.  Brown-rot  {Sclerotinia  fructigena) .  —  Attacks  flowers,  leaves, 
and  fruit.  The  flowers  die  and  decay,  the  leaves  become  discolored 
with  irregular  brown  spots,  and  the  fruit  rots  on  the  tree.  Attacks 
also  peaches,  plums,  and  apples. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  or  lime-sulfur, 
1-40,  (a)  just  before  the  blossom  buds  open;   (6)  just  after  the 
blossoms  fall;    (c)  make  one  or  two  more  applications  at  intervals 
of  ten  days. 
Leaf-rust.     See  under  Plum,  p.  279. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Podosphoera  oxycanthce).  —  Attacks  leaves  and 
twigs,  often  causing  defoliation.     Serious  on  nursery  stock.     Spray- 


268  PLANT  DISEASES 

ing  as  for  brown  rot  usually  controls  this  trouble.     If  it  appears, 

spray  with  lime  sulfur,  1-40,  or  dust  heavily  with  powdered  sulfur. 

I^AF-si'OT  {("i/lindrosporiuni  padi).  —  A  fungous  disease  in  which 

the  leaves  become  thickly  spotted  with  reddish  or  brown  spots  and 

fall  prematurely.     The  spots  often  droi)  out,  leaving  shot  holes. 

Control.  —  Spray   with   lime    sulfur,    1-40,    or   with   bordeaux 

mixture,  4-4-50,  as  for  brown  rot. 

WiNTEU   Injliiy. — Trees  so  injured  make  a  scant  growth;  many 

leaves  turn  yellow  and  fall  about  picking  time;  gum  exudes  at  the 

crotches  and  about  the  trunk;  sometimes  the  bark  on  the  stock  is 

entirely  killed,  in  which  case  the  tree  languishes  and  finally  dies. 

Conlrol.  —  It  is  thought  that  heavy  applications  of  highly  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers  in  late  summer  favor  winter  injury.  Do  not 
stimulate  the  tree  to  too  active  wood  development.  Cut  out  the 
gum  pockets  and  cankers,  and  paint  them  with  a  heavy  lead  paint. 
Chestnut.  B.\rk  Disease  {D iapor the  parasitica) .  — A  fungous  disease, 
attacking  the  bark  of  the  American  chestnut.  Limbs  and  trunk 
are  ginlled,  and  the  tree  dies.  The  disease  is  present  in  many  of 
the  nurseries. 

Control.  —  Inspect    nursery    stock    very    carefully,    especially 
about  pruned  stubs.     Discard  diseased  trees.     Make  a  careful 
examination  of  old  trees,  especially  about  old  wounds  and  pruned 
stubs.     If  the  disease  is  present,  clean  out  the  diseased  wood  with 
a  gouge,  and  coat  heavily  with  gas-tar.     If  the  disease  has  pro- 
gressed far,  cut  off  diseased  limbs  or  the  whole  tree  and  burn  at 
once.     Keep  all  wounds  and  pruned  stubs  covered  with  gas-tar. 
Chrysanthemum.     Leaf-spot     {Septoria    chnjsanthemi).  —  First    ap- 
pears as  dark  brown  spots,  which  increase  in  size  until  the  leaf  dies. 
Control.  —  Pick  and  burn  diseased  leaves.     Spray  the  plants 
with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50. 
Rust  (Puccinia  chrysanthemi).  —  Reddish  brown  rust  pustules  on 
the  leaves. 

Control.  —  Avoid  wetting  the  foliage  when  watering.  Spray 
JUS  for  Leaf  Spot. 
Corn.  Iv\u-R()T  (Diplodia  zecc).  —  Several  other  organisms  may  cause 
an  ear  rot,  but  this  is  the  more  connnon  one.  The  ear  is  imper- 
fectly developed,  soft,  and  overrun  with  a  whitish  mold.  In 
many  cases  the  husks  and  silk  are  also  involved. 


CORN — CRANBERRY  269 

Control.  —  Destroy  old  infected  ears  and  stalks.     Practice  a 
rotation  which  will  exclude  corn  for  two  years  from  or  near  the 
given  plat  of  ground. 
Rust  {Puccinia  maydis).  —  Reddish  pustules  on  the  blades.     Com- 
mon on  some  varieties  of  sweet  corn. 

Control.  —  No  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  known. 
Smut     (  Ustilago  zece).  —  Attacks  stalks,  ears,  and  tassels,  produc- 
ing abnormal  boils  or  outgrowths.     Will  infect  at  actively  growing 
points  at  any  time. 

Control.  —  Rotate  crops.  Do  not  manure  corn  ground.  Cut 
out  smut  and  burn  it.  Soaking  seed  is  of  no  avail. 
Cotton.  Anthracxose  {Colletotrichum  c^oss^/pu).  —  Forms  black  or 
purplish  colored  spots  on  bolls.  Disease  also  occurs  on  seed  leaves 
and  on  the  leaves  and  stems.  Select  seed  from  fields  free  from  the 
disease.  Rotate  crops.  Use  disease-resistant  varieties. 
Root-rot  (Ozonium  omnivorum).  —  Easily  recognized  by  the  sudden 
wilting  and  dying  of  the  plants  in  the  field. 

Control.  —  A  combination  of  rotation  of  crops  and  deep  fah 
plowing  is  effective. 
Wilt  (Fusarium  vasinfeda) .  —  Csmses  a  gradual  wilt  and  eventual 

death  of  leaves  and  stems.  .    . 

Control.  -  Rotate  crops.     Secure  seed  of  wilt-resistant  varieties 

of  cotton.  ..         rp.      f 

Cranberry.  Blast  or  Scald  (Guignardia  vaccinn). -The  tungus 
causes  a  blast  of  the  flowers  and  very  young  fruits,  and  attacks 
older  fruits,  causing  them  to  appear  scalded  or  watery. 

Control. -Spv2.y  five  or  six  times  with  bordeaux  mixture. 
5-5-50,  to  whichhas  been  added  4  pounds  of  resin  fish  oil  soap,  mak- 
ing  the  first  appUcation  just  before  the  blossoms  open.  Long 
lines  of  hose  are  most  satisfactory  for  this  work,  and  the  spraying 
must  be  done  thoroughly. 

Rot.     (Acanthorhynchus  vaccinii).  -  A  disease  which  cannot  be  di.- 
tinguished  from  scald  with  the  naked  eye. 
Control.  —  As  for  Scald. 

Hypertrophy     {E.vobasidium  oxy cocci).  -  \ppeavson    the  young 
leaves  soon  after  the  water  has  been  let  off  in  the  spring.     Th 
axiUarv  leaf  buds  are  attacked  and  produce  short  shoots  nmIU 
rair  Use,  enlarged,  swollen,  and  distorted   leaves   which  are 


270  PLANT  DISEASES 

pink  or  li^ht  rose  color.     The  production  of   fruit  is  prevented 
or  reduced. 

Control.  —  Early   spraying  with  bordeaux    mixture   has  been 
advised. 
Cucumber.     Anthr.\c\ose.  —  See  under  Muskmelon,  p.  274. 
JiLi(;HT  or  Mildew  {Pseudoperonospora  cuhensis).  —  A  blighting  and 
premature  yellowing  of  the  foliage. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  5-5-50.  Commence 
to  spray  when  the  plants  begin  to  run,  and  repeat  every  ten  to 
fourteen  days  throughout  the  season. 
Wilt  {Bacillui^  trachciphilus).  —  This  is  a  disease  caused  by  bacteria 
that  get  into  the  sap  tubes  of  the  leaf  and  stem,  clog  and  destroy 
them,  causing  the  plant  to  wilt.  The  bacteria  are  distributed 
chiefly  by  the  striped  cucumber  beetle. 

Control:  —  Control  the  striped  beetle.  See  p.  318.  Gather 
and  destroy  all  wilted  leaves  and  plants. 
Wilt  (caused  by  malnutrition).  —  Excessive  fertilizing  with  highly 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  will  sometimes  produce  a  peculiar  curling 
and  wilting  of  the  leaves. 
Currant.  Anthracxose  (Gla^osporium  ribis).  —  Small  dark  brown 
spots,  chiefly  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  The  leaves  finally 
turn  yellow,  and  fall  in  July  or  August. 

Control.  —  Thorough  applications  of  bordeaux  mixture,  5-5-50. 
Leaf-spot    (Septoria    ribis,    Cercospora    angulata    etc.).  —  Whitish 
spots  with  black  centers.     Appears  in  midsummer,  and  causes 
defoliation. 

Control.  —  As   for   Anthracnose. 
Wilt   or   Caxe-blight.  —  A    destructive    fungous    disease    which 
causes  the  canes  to  die  suddenly.     Character  of  the  wilting  much 
like  that  produced  by  the  cane-borer. 

Control.  —  Xo  satisfactory  method  known.  The  most  that 
can  be  done  is  to  go  over  the  patch  three  or  four  times  during  the 
summer,  cut  out  and  burn  the  blighted  canes. 
Ginseng.  Rli(;ht  (Alternaria  panaci.^^).  —  Pajiery  brown  spots  on  the 
leaves,  which  spread  until  the  whole  leaf  is  involved.  Also  at- 
tacks the  seed  heads,  producing  a  blast. 

Control.  —  In  the  spring  before  the   plants  come  through  the 
ground  spray  the  soil  thoroughly  with  copper  sulfate,  1  pound  to 


GINSENG  —  GRAPE  271 

10  gallons  of  water.  As  the  plants  are  breaking  through  the  soil, 
spray  with  bordeaux,  3-3-50.  Spray  repeatedly  while  the  plants 
are  coming  through  the  ground,  making  a  special  effort  to  cover 
the  stems.  Keep  all  growth  covered  with  spray  throughout 
the  summer.  Spray  the  seed  heads  thoroughly  just  after  the  blos- 
soms fall,  and  again  when  they  are  two-thirds  grown.  Destroy 
all  diseased  tops. 
Fiber  Rot  (Thielavia  basicola).  —  Commonly  called  rust  or  rusty 
root,  from  the  characteristic  appearance.  The  plants  eventually 
wilt  and  die. 

Control.  —  Treat  the  soil  with  acid   phosphate  at  the  rate  of 
1000  pounds  to   the  acre.     Dip  the  roots  in  bordeaux  mixture, 
3-3-50,  before  planting. 
Mildew    (Phytophthora   cadorum).  —  Attacks   tops    shortly   after 
they  come  up. 

Control.  —  Thorough  spraying  early,  as  for  blight,  will  control 
this  disease. 
Wilt  {Acrostalagmus  sp.).  —  A  sudden  wilting  of  the  whole  plant, 
caused  by  the  action  of  the   fungus   in  the  sap  tubes  of   the 
root. 

Control.  —  Remove  the  wilted  plants  as  soon  as  discovered  in 
order  to  prevent  further  spread. 
Root-rot.  —  Caused  by  various  soil  organisms.    Favored  by  wet, 
soggy  soil. 

Control.  —  Underdrain  the  soil  thoroughly. 
Golden-seal.  —  Consult  treatments  under  Ginseng. 
Gooseberry.  —  Mildew    {Sphaerotheca  mors-uvcc).  —  A   powdery  mil- 
dew attacking  the  fruit  and  young  growth  of  English  varieties  of 
gooseberry. 

Control.  —  As  soon  as  the  leaves  begin  to  unfold,  spray  with 
potassium  sulfid,  1  ounce  to  2  gallons  of  water. 
Rust  {Mcidium    ^rosswZan^).  —  Orange-colored    rust    pustules  on 
the  fruit  and  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

Control.  —  Early  spraying  as  for  Mildew.     Keep  down  sedges 

and  grasses. 

Grape.     Anthracnose    (Sphaceloma   ampelinum) .  — Occurs    on    the 

fruit  as  a  definite  dark  brown  spot  with  a  lighter  auriole  ;    on 

canes  as  deep  pits  with  an  elevated  red  margin,  and  on  veins  of 


'2  PLANT  DISEASES 

the  loaves,  causing  the  leaves  to  crimp.     Occurs  on  all  varieties, 
especially  Roger's  hybrids.     Not  so  abundant  as  formerly. 

Control.  —  It  is  said  that  an  early  spraying  before  the  buds 
open  with  sulfate  of  iron,  100  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  is 
very  important.  Later  sprayings  for  black  rot  will  also  be 
effective  in   preventing  spread. 

BL.\rK-HnT  {(iui(jnnrdia  hidwclUi).  —  The  most  serious  disease  of 
grapes  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  southward.  At- 
tacks all  green  parts.  Produces  a  brown  circular  spot  on  leaves, 
a  black,  elongated,  sunken  pit  on  petioles,  canes,  etc.,  and  on  the 
berry  a  brown  rot  with  shriveling  and  wrinkling  ;  finally  the 
berry  becomes  black  and  hard. 

Control.  —  This  disease  may  be  controlled  by  timely  applica- 
tions of  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50.  It  is  of  great  importance  that 
spraying  be  done  before  rain  storms,  as  the  berry  enlarges  so 
rapidly.  Spray  {a)  when  the  third  or  fourth  leaf  has  unfolded  ; 
(6)  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  have  fallen;  (c)  when  the  berries  are 
the  size  of  a  pea  ;  {d)  in  about  two  weeks.  In  a  wet  season  make 
two  more  applications.  After  July  20  make  the  bordeaux  4-2-50, 
or  use  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.  In  case  of  dense  foliage 
all  applications  except  the  first  two  should  be  made  by  hand. 
Attach  trailers  to  the  sprayer,  and  have  two  men  following  to 
apply  the  spray  directly  to  the  clusters.  About  ten  acres  can  be 
sprayed  in  a  day,  and  the  total  cost  of  labor  and  material  should 
not  exceed  75  cents  per  acre  for  each  application. 

California  Vine-disease.  —  An  obscure  disease,  which  destroj'^ed 
thousands  of  acres  of  vines  in  California.  Cause  not  known, 
and  at  present  practically  unknown  and  of  no  importance  eco- 
nomically. 

Crown-gall  or  Black  Knot  {Bacterium  tumefaciens) .  —  A  tu- 
morous, gnarled  outgrowth  on  roots  and  stems,  especially  on  Euro- 
pean varieties.  Frost  injury  often  forms  an  infection  court  for 
the  bacteria.     See  p.  276. 

Control.  —  Grub  out  and  I)urn  infected  vines. 

Downy  Mildew  or  I.eaf-blkjht  {Phismopdra  viiicola).  —  Appears 
in  white  frost  like  patches  on  under  side  of  leaf,  the  upper  side  of  the 
leaf  showing  a  yellowish  discoloration  ;  gradually  spreads  to  all 
parts  of  the  leaf  causing  it  to  dry  up.     Attacks  the  berry,  which 


GRAPE  —  LETTUCE  273 

remains  hard  and  white  or  gray.  Worst  on  hybrids  with  vinifcra 
blood  ;  especially  common  on  Delaware  and  Roger's  hybrids. 
Widespread  in  North  America. 

Control.  —  Spray  as  for  Black-rot. 
Necrosis  or  Dead- arm  Disease  (FusicoccummYico/wm). —Attacks 
shoots,  and  progresses  from  there  to  the  old  wood,  causing  a  dry 
rot  and  eventual  death  of  the  vine. 

Control.  —  Inspect  canes  at  trimming  time,  and  use  care  not  to 
leave  those  on  which  the  brownish  black  spots  are  present.     Train 
up  renewals  from  the  root,  and  cut  off  the  old  stem  below  the  dis- 
eased area. 
Ripe-rot   {Glomerella  rufomaculans) .  —  See  under  Apple,   p.  263. 

Treatment  as  for  black-rot  is  efficacious. 
Shelling    or    Rattles.  —  Cause    unknown.      The    berry    breaks 
squarely  off  at  its  juncture  with  the  pedicle.    The  leaves  on  such 
vines  usually  turn  reddish  brown  about  the  margin.     Powdery 
mildew  is  sometimes  responsible  for  shelling. 
Control.  —  No  method  is  known. 
Hollyhock.      Anthracxose      {Colletotrichum     malvarum).  —  Angular 
brown  spots  on  leaves  and  stems  which  spread,  killing  the  entire 
leaf. 

Control.  —  As  for  Rust. 
Rust    (Puccinia   malvacearum) . — Attacks  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
causing  reddish  brown  pustules  on  affected  parts  ;    later  leaving 
deep  pits  ;   may  entirely  destroy  the  leaves.     It   is  abundant  on 
the  common  mallow  or  "  cheeses." 

Control.  —  Eradicate  the  mallow  ;    pick  off  diseased  leaves  in 
the  fall,  and  burn  all  litter.     Repeat  in  the  spring,  and  spray  new 
growth  thoroughly  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-3-50.     Spray  every 
week  until  the  flower-stalks  are  well  developed. 
Lettuce.     Leaf    Perforation    (Marssonia  perforans).  —  Dead  areas 
in  the  leaves  which  finally  drop  out.     Also  on  veins  of  the  leaves. 
Control.  —  As  for  Rosette  (p.  274). 
Downy  IVIildew  {Bremia  lactucce).  —  Y qWow  spots  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf,  accompanied  by  a  frosty  growth  on  the  opposite 
side. 

Control.  —  Destroy    infected    plants.     Keep    water    from    the 
leaves  ;   furnish  water  by  means  of  subirrigation. 


1>74  PLANT  DISEASES 

Drop  or  Rot  {Sderotinia  libertiana).  —  Base  of  the  leaves  or  stem 
rots  off,  allowing  leaves  to  drop. 

Control .  —  Sterilize  the  soil  with  steam  before  planting.     See 
under  Ste<im  in  Cliapter  XV,  p.  253. 
RosEiTE  {lihizodonia  sp.).  —  A  rotting  or  daniping-off  of  the  stem. 
Late  affected  plants  have  a  rosetted  appearance. 

Control.  —  Start  seed  in  steam-sterilized  soil,  and  transfer  to 
beds  that  have  l)een  sterilized  with  steam,  as  for  Drop. 
Muskraelon.  Anthracn'Ose  ( Colletotrichum  lagenarium) .  —  Dead  spots 
on  the  leaves  and  stems  and  sunken  pits  on  the  fruit.  Thorough 
and  frequent  spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  will  hold  this  dis- 
ea.se  in  check. 
Do w.\ Y  Mildew.  —  The  .same  disease  as  on  cucumbers  (p.  270) .  Often 
very  destructive. 

Control.  —  A  satisfactory  method  is  not  known.     Spraying  as 
for  cucumber  mildew  has  not  proved  effective. 
Wilt.  —  See  Cucumber. 
Nectarine.     Yellows,  etc.     See  under  Peach,  p.  276. 
Nursery  Stock.  —  Foliage  on  young  trees  is  apt  to  be  attacked  by 
various  leaf-spot  fungi.     The  damage  comes  in  reducing  growth, 
thus  often   making  seconds.     Several  applications  of   bordeaux 
mixture  to  keep  the  new  growth  protected  are  beneficial. 
Oats.     Rust  {Puccinia  coronata).  —  A  red  rust  of  the  blades. 
Control.  —  There  is  no  known  method  of  control. 
Smut.  —  See  under  Smut  of  Cereals,  p.  260. 
Onion.     Mildew   (Peroriospora    schleideniana) .  —  Causes  a    wilt    or 
blight  of  the  leaves. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  5-5-50,  to  which  has 
been  added  one  gallon  of  resin-sal-soda  sticker.  The  first  applica- 
tion should  be  made  when  the  third  leaf  has  developed,  and  the 
application  should  be  repeated  every  ten  days  until  the  crop  is  har- 
vested. 
Smut  (  Urocydis  cepulw).  —  Forms  black  pustules  on  the  leaves  and 
bulbs.     Seedlings  may  be  killed  outright. 

Control.  —  Onions  from  sets  or  from  seed  started  m  soil  free 
from  the  di.sea.se  S(>ld()m  have  the  smut.  Practice  crop  rotation. 
Drill  into  the  soil  with  the  seed  100  pounds  of  sulfur  and  50 
pounds  of  air-slaked  lime  to  the  acre. 


ONION  —  PEA  CH  275 

Pea.     Mildew  (Erysiphe  polygoni).  —  A  powdery  mildew  on  pods  and 

leaves. 

Control.  —  Dust  dry  sulfur  over  the  plants,  repeating  the  opera- 
tion if  necessary. 
Pod  Spot  and  Leaf-spot  (Ascochyta  pisi).  —  Black  circular  spots  on 
stems,  leaves,  and  buds.     The  fungus  grows  through  the  pod  into 
the  seed,  and  is  thus  carried  through  the  winter. 

Control.  —  Select  pods  free  from  spots,  and  save  the  seed  from 
these  for  the  next  year's  planting.  On  a  large  scale  have  a  clean 
seed  garden  in  which  to  grow  clean  seed  for  the  following  year. 
Peach.  Blight  {Coryneum  beyerinkii). —  A  spotting,  gumming 
and  death  of  the  buds  and  twigs,  particularly  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  tree.  The  fruit  drops.  Especially  serious  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Control.  —  For  California  conditions  two  applications  of  spray 
are  made  :  (a)  in  November  or  December,  and  (6)  in  February  or 
March.  This  also  controls  leaf-curl.  Bordeaux  mixture,  5-5-50, 
or  lime-sulfur,  1-10,  may  be  used. 
Brown-rot  {Scerotinia  frudigena).  —  Causes  a  rot  of  the  fruit,  and 
often  runs  down  the  spur,  forming  a  canker  in  the  limb.  Also 
produces  brownish  irregular  spots  on  the  leaves. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  self-boiled  lime-sulfur,  8-8-50,  adding 
2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead.  Spray  first  about  time  shucks  are 
shedding  from  young  fruit;  second,  two  to  three  weeks  later,  and 
third,  about  one  month  before  the  fruit  ripens.  Omit  the  arsenate 
of  lead  from  the  third  spraying.  On  early  maturing  varieties  two 
applications  may  be  sufficient.  Spraying  within  a  month  of 
picking  time  is  apt  to  leave  the  fruit  spotted.  It  is  especially  im- 
portant that  sprayings  be  made  before  a  continued  storm  period. 
Destroy  rotten  peaches.  The  rotten  ones  on  the  ground  are  as 
great  a  menace  (especially  if  plowed  under)  as  those  on  the  tree, 
as  the  fungus  winters  readily  on  the  fallen  mummies.  Brown-rot 
also  occurs  on  cherries,  plums,  apricots,  and  sometimes  on  apples 
and  pears. 
Leaf-curl  {Exoascus  deformans).  —  Causes  the  leaves  to  crimp  and 
curl  and  often  to  turn  bright  red.  Also  causes  shoots  to  swell 
and  become  distorted. 

Control  —  In  an  infected  orchard  more  than  90   per  cent  ot 


>76  PLANT  DISEASES 

the  curl  can  be  controlled  the  first  year.  The  second  year  control 
should  be  complete.  The  secret  of  control  of  leaf-curl  lies  largely 
in  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  work  is  done.  A  number  of 
spray  substances  may  be  used.  A  single  thorough  application 
before  the  buds  swell  in  the  spring  is  sufficient.  Every  bud 
must  be  covered  and  from  all  sides.  Lime-sulfur  as  applied  for 
San  J()s<5  scale  will  control  curl.  Commercial  lime-sulfur,  1-20; 
bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50;  or  a  simple  solution  of  blue  vitriol 
in  water,  2-50,  are  all  specifics. 

Le.\f-hlst. — See  under  Plum     (p.  279). 

LiTTLE-PE.\cH.  —  A  disease  that  in  its  early  stages  resembles 
yellows.  It  differs  from  yellows  in  producing  small  fruit 
that  matures  later  than  normally.  Fruit  docs  not  have  the  small 
red  spots  characteristic  of  yellows,  nor  are  there  slender  sickly 
branches.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  unknown.  Apparently 
spreads  more  rapidly  than  yellows  and  commonly  destroys  the 
affected  tree  sooner.  Occurs  in  the  northern  states. 
Preventive.  —  As  for  Yellows  (sec  ne.xt  page). 

Powdery  mildew  (SpfuBrotheca  pannosa).  —  A  w^hitish  powdery 
growth  on  the  young  shoots  and  leaves,  and  whitish  spots  on  the 
fruit. 

Control.  —  Self-boiled  lime-sulfur  as  for  Rot. 

Root-gall,  Root-Knot,  Crown-gall,  Hairy-root  {Bacterium 
tumefacicns).  —  Hairy  roots  or  tumerous  outgrow^ths  on  the  roots 
and  root  crowns  ;  sometimes  occurs  on  trunks  and  limbs.  Pri- 
marily a  nursery  disease.  Does  not  seem  to  be  a  serious  disease 
on  peaches  in  the  North,  but  is  reported  as  very  serious  in  the 
South.  Attacks  a  wide  range  of  orchard  plants,  including  apple, 
pear,  brambles,  grape,  etc. 

Control.  —  Reject  all  stock  showing  symptoms. 

Rosette.  —  An  obscure  southern  disease  of  peach  trees  and  some 
kinds  of  plums,  characterized  by  bunchy  growths  containing  very 
many  rolled  and  yellowish  leaves  which  fall  prematurely.  The 
tree  dies  the  first  or  second  year.  There  is  no  premature  fruit  as 
in  yellows.  It  is  often  accompanied  by  gummosis  of  the  roots. 
The  disease  is  communicable  by  budding,  and  it  may  enter  through 
the  roots.  All  affected  trees  should  be  exterminated.  Known 
in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Kansas,  and  Arkansas. 


PEACH  AND   PEAR   DISEASES  277 

Scab   or   Black-spot  (Cladosporiiim  cnrpophilum).  ~  Black  scab- 
like spots  on  the  fruit,  often  causing  it  to  crack  deeply. 

Control.  —  Self-boiled  lime-sulfur,  as  applied  for  Browx-hot. 
Yellows.  —  A  fatal  disease  of  peaches  ;  also  attacks  nectarine, 
almond,  apricot,  and  Japanese  plum.  Cause  unknown.  The 
first  symptom  in  bearing  trees  is  usually  the  premature  ripening 
of  the  fruit.  This  fruit  contains  definite  small  red  spots,  which 
extend  towards  the  pit.  The  second  stage  is  usually  the  appear- 
ance of  "  tips,"  or  short,  late,  second  growths  upon  the  ends  of 
healthy  twigs,  and  which  are  marked  by  small,  horizontal,  usually 
yellowish  leaves.  The  next  stage  is  indicated  by  very  slender 
shoots,  which  branch  the  first  year  and  which  start  in  tufts  from  the 
old  limbs,  bearing  narrow  and  small  yellowish  leaves.  Later  the 
entire  foliage  becomes  smaller  and  yellow.  In  three  to  six  years  the 
tree  dies.  The  disease  spreads  from  tree  to  tree.  It  attacks 
trees  of  any  age.  Known  at  present  only  in  regions  east  of  the 
Mississippi.     Peculiar  to  America,  so  far  as  known. 

Preventive.  —  Pull  up  and  burn  all  trees  as  soon  as  the  disease 
appears.  Trees  may  be  reset  in  the  places  from  which  the 
"  yellows  "  trees  were  taken.  Laws  aiming  to  suppress  the  disease 
have  been  enacted  in  most  peach-growing  states,  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  them  will  keep  the  disease  well  under  control. 
Pear.  Blight  {Bacillus  amylovorus).  —  A  very  serious  bacterial 
disease.  Bacteria  winter  just  at  the  edge  of  the  dead  wood  in 
trees  blighted  the  previous  year.  With  the  advent  of  warm  spring 
days  they  ooze  through  the  bark  in  sticky  drops  and  are  carried  by 
bees  and  flies  to  blossoms.  The  blossoms  blight,  and  the  spur  may 
also  blight.  Plant-lice  carry  bacteria  from  blighted  blossoms  to 
spurs  and  shoots.  If  a  spur  becomes  blighted,  the  bacteria  may 
spread  in  the  bark  of  the  limb,  causing  a  depression  or  canker. 
This  may  girdle  the  limb  and  cause  its  death.  The  leaves  turn 
black  and  stick  tenaciously,  even  through  the  winter.  Succulent 
water  sprouts  are  very  apt  to  blight  and  cause  large  cankers. 
Generally  distributed  in  North  America,  and  known  only  in 
America.  Attacks  apple,  quince,  mountain  ash,  hawthorn ;  the 
Spitzenburgh  is  specially  liable  to  attack. 

Control.  —  Clean    up    hedgerows    of    hawthorn,  old    blighted 
pear  trees  and  apple  trees.     In  early  spring  cut  out  the  blight 


278  PLANT  DISEASES 

of  the  i)n'vi()as  year  and  disinfect  the  stubs  with  corrosive  sub- 
linialc,  1-1  (K)().  Clean  out  cankers  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  dis- 
infect. Paint  over  with  lead  paint.  At  blossoming  time  make 
a  systematic  daily  inspection  for  blossom  blight,  and  break  it  out. 
Watch  for  blight  in  the  shoots.  When  it  appears  get  a  long- 
handled  pruning-liook,  fasten  a  sponge  near  the  knife,  and  saturate 
it  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  1-1000.  Clip  out  the  blighted 
twigs,  cutting  five  or  six  inches  below  the  blight,  and  sop  the 
pruned  stub  with  the  sponge.  During  a  blight  epidemic,  drop  all 
other  work.  The  work  must  be  done  systematically  and  per- 
sistently, or  not  at  all.  One  week's  work  may  save  the  pear  crop 
and  the  pear  trees. 

Leaf-bligiit  and  Cracking  of  fruit  {Fabrea  inacxdata).  —  Attacks 
nursery  stock  of  pears  and  quinces,  beginning  as  small  circular 
brown  spots  on  the  leaves.  These  spread,  and  if  numerous  cause 
the  leaf  to  fall.  The  same  disease  produces  a  black  spot  or  pit  on 
the  fruit. 

Control.  —  In  nurseries  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50. 
In  the  orchard  spray  as  for  pear  scab,  with  perhaps  one  additional 
application. 

Leaf-spot  {Mycosphwrella  sentina). —  Small  lecticular  spots  with  white 
centers  on  leaves.     Spots  become  so  numerous  as  to  cause  defoli- 
ation.   The  fungus  is  known  only  on  leaves,  and  it  winters  on  them. 
Control.  —  Burn  fallen  leaves.     Spray  as  for  Scab. 

Scab  (  Venturia  pyrina).  —  Greenish  brown  or  black  spots  on  leaves 
and  fruit,  arresting  growth  and  often  causing  fruit  to  crack. 
Severe  on  Flemish  Beauty.  Often  attacks  pedicles  of  fruits  and 
causes  them  to  drop,  and  may  even  cause  defoliation.  Is  different 
from  apple  scab,  but  behaves  much  like  it.  Differs  especially  in 
the  fact  that  the  fungus  winters  on  the  twigs  as  well  as  on  fallen 
leaves. 

Control.  —  Owing  to  the  nearness  of  the  fungus  (on  the  twigs) 
and  the  slowness  with  which  the  pear-leaf  unfolds,  two  applications 
of  spray  l)efore  the  blossoms  open  are  sometimes  necessary,  and  one 
immediately  after  they  fall.  Use  lime-sulfur,  1-50,  or  bordeaux, 
3-3-50. 

Remarks  in  regard  to  apple  scab  (on  page  264)  are  equally 
important  her*. 


PLUM  AND   POTATO   DISEASES  279 

Rust  (Gymnosporangium  globosum).  —  Having  the  same  habits  and 
appearance  as  apple  rust. 
Control.  —  As  for  Scab. 
Plum.  Black-knot  {Plowrightia  morbosa).  —A  black  tumorous  swell- 
ing from  one  to  several  inches  in  length,  appearing  on  the  limbs 
and  twigs  of  American  plums  and  sour  cherries.  Point  of  attack 
is  usually  under  a  bud  or  in  crotches.  Confined  to  America. 
A  very  serious  disease.  In  some  regions  it  has  destroyed  the 
plum  industry.  It  was  once  supposed  to  be  caused  by  an 
insect. 

Control.  —  Burn  all  affected  parts  in  the  fall.  Cut  several 
inches  below  the  swelling.  A  badly  infected  tree  should  be  cut 
down  at  once,  as  there  is  no  hope  of  saving  it.  Many  states  have 
a  law  requiring  the  destruction  of  affected  trees. 

Brown-rot.  —  See  under  Peach  (p.  275). 

Shot-hole  fungus.  —  See  Leaf-spot  of  Cherry  (p.  268). 

Leaf-rust  {Puccinia  priini-spinosoB) .  —  Small  circular  powdery 
spots  of  yellowish  brown  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  and 
reddish  spots  on  the  upper  surface  directly  above  them. 

Control.  —  Early  spraying  with  bordeaux,  3-3-50,  or  self-boiled 
lime-sulfur,   8-8-50. 

Powdery  mildew.  —  See  under  Peach  (p.  276). 
Potato.     Early  blight  (Alternaria  solani).  —  A  blight  of  foliage  begin- 
ning as  an  even  circular  spot  and  coming  early  in  the  season, 
usually  in  July.     Progresses  slowly.     This  disease  does  not  attack 
the  tubers. 

Control. — Bordeaux  mixture  at  intervals  of  ten  days,  beginning 
when  plants  are  6-8  in.  high. 

Late  blight  and  Potato-rot  {Phytophthorainfestans) . — The  fungus 
winters  in  the  tuber,  which  shows  a  faint  pinkish  tinge  and  a  dry 
rot.  Diseased  tubers  are  planted,  the  fungus  fruits  on  the  cut 
surface  and  its  swarm  spores  pass  through  the  soil-water  to  the 
leaves  which  touch  or  are  buried  in  the  soil.  An  extensive  ir- 
regular blighted  area  covers  the  leaf,  the  under  surface  of  which 
may  have  a  mildewy  appearance.  The  disease  spreads  very 
rapidly.  Later  spores  are  washed  down  to  the  tubers  and  infect 
them.  Appears  late  in  the  season,  usually  not  much  before 
August  L 


280  PLANT  DISEASES 

Control.  —  Can  be  controlled  successfully  by  the  use  of  bor- 
deaux mixture,  5-5-50.  It  is  always  i)r()fitable  to  spray  at  least 
three  times,  and  in  a  wet  season  six  or  more  applications  should 
be  made.  As  the  vines  increase  in  size,  greater  quantities  of  spray 
and  more  nozzles  must  be  used.  Use  from  40  to  100  gallons  of 
sjiniy  mixture  per  acre. 

Dry- Rot  and  Wilt  {Fusarium  oxysporum).  —  A  dry  rot  of  the  tuber 
in  storage  and  wilt  of  plants  in  the  field.  Can  be  detected  in  the 
seed  tuber  before  there  is  any  external  appearance  by  examin- 
ing a  section  near  the  stem  end.  A  black  ring  or  chain  of  dots 
near  the  surface  is  indicative  of  the  rot.  Infection  frequently 
takes  place  through  wounds. 

Control.  —  Reject  all  diseased  tubers  for  seed.  Practice  a 
rotation  in  which  potatoes  are  not  grown  on  the  soil  for  at  least 
two  years. 

Scab  {Oospora  scabies).  —  A  scabby  and  pitted  roughness  of  potato 
tubers.  Lime,  ashes  or  manure  added  to  the  soil  increases  the 
amount  of  scab  by  favoring  the  growth  of  the  fungus.  It  has 
become  one  of  the  serious  diseases  of  the  potato. 

Control.  —  Do  not  plant  on  land  which  has  grown  scabby 
potatoes.  Plant  clean  seed.  If  only  scabby  seed  is  at  hand,  soak 
the  uncut  tubers  in  a  solution  of  formalin,  1  pint  in  30  gallons 
of  water,  for  two  hours.  Drain,  cut,  and  plant  in  clean  soil.  Use 
the  formalin  solution  over  and  over.  The  same  fungus  also 
attacks  beets. 
Pumpkin.  —  See  under  Muskmelon  (p.  274). 

Quince.  Bl.\ck-rot  {Sphceropsis  malorum).  — A  trouble  which  usually 
appears  at  the  blossom  end  of  young  quince  fruits,  causing  them 
to  become  black  and  hard,  with  a  dry  rot  of  the  tissue.  The  same 
di.sejuse  occurs  on  apples,  which  see. 

Blight.  —  See  under  Pear  Blight  (p.  277). 

\j£..KF-  AND  Fruit-spot.  — See  Pear-Leaf  Blight,  which  is  the  same 
di.sease. 

Hu.sT.  —  The  organism  causing  this  disease  is  of  the  same  habit  and 
nature  as  that  causing  apple  rust. 

Control.  —  As  for  Apple  Rust  (p.  264). 
Radish.     White   ru.st  or   Mildew   (Albugo  candidiis).  —  A  whitish 
powdery  growth  on  the  leaves  and  petioles,  often  causing  distortion. 


ROSE  —  SPINA  CH  28 1 

Control  —  Steam-sterilize  the  soil  before  planting. 
Club-root.  —  See  under  Cabbage  (p.  266). 
Raspberry.     Anthracnose     {Glceosporium     ye/ie^wm).  —  Circular    or 
elliptical,  gray  scab-like  spots  on  the  canes. 

Control.  —  Avoid  taking  young  plants  from  diseased  plantations. 
Remove  all  diseased  canes  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  picked.  Practice 
frequent  rotation. 
Crown-gall  or  Root-gall  {Bacterium  tumefaciens) .  —  Tumorous 
outgrowths  on  the  roots,  especially  on  red  varieties.  It  is  con- 
tagious and  destructive. 

Control.  —  Never  set  plants  which  have  galls  on  the  roots. 
Avoid  setting  on  infested  land.     See  under  Peach  (p.  276). 
Red  or  Orange  rust   {Gymnoconia  inter stilialis) .  —  k  dense  red 
powdery  growth  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  bhick  varieties 
and  of  blackberries.     The  fungus  hibernates  in  the  roots. 
Control.  —  Dig  up  and  destroy  infected  plants. 
Rice.     Blast,  Blight  or  Rotten-neck  (Piricularia  oryza;).  —  An  ex- 
tensive paling  and  drying  of  leaf  and  stem,  and  a  partial  failure 
of  the  heads  to  fill. 

Control.  —  The  selection  of  early  maturing  varieties  is  advis- 
able. Burn  stubble  and  trash  left  in  the  fields. 
Rose.  Black  leaf-spot  {Actinonema  rosce).  —  Attacks  the  full-grown 
leaves,  first  appearing  as  small  black  spots,  but  later  covering 
nearly  or  quite  the  whole  surface  with  blotches.  The  spots  have 
frayed  edges. 

Control.  —  Spray  with  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  beginning 
with  the  first  appearance  of  the  spots  and  continuing  at  intervals 
of  one  week  until  under  subjection. 
Mildew  {Sphcerotheca  pannosa).  —  A  white  powdery  mildew  on  the 
new  growth. 

Control.  —  For  greenhouse  roses  keep  the  steam  pipes  painted 
with  a  paste  made  of  equal  parts  lime  and  sulfur  mixed  with 
water.  Out-of-door  roses  should  be  dusted  with  sulfur  flour 
or  sprayed  with  potassium  sulfid,  1  ounce  to  3  gallons  of 
water. 
Spinach.  —  There  are  numerous  fungous  diseases  of  this  crop,  but  a 
practical  method  of  control  has  not  been  developed.  The  best 
that  can  be  done  is  to  rotate  crops. 


282  PLANT  DISEASES 

Strawberry.  Leaf-spot  or  leaf-blight  (Mycosphcerella  fragarioe). — 
Small  purple  or  red  spots  ajipearing  on  the  leaves.  They  increase 
in  size  and  make  the  leaf  appear  blotched.  The  fungus  passes 
the  winter  in  the  old  diseased  leaves  that  fall  to  the  ground. 

Control.  —  In  setting  new  plantations  remove  all  diseased 
leaves  from  the  plants  before  they  are  taken  to  the  field.  Soon 
after  growth  begins,  spray  the  plants  with  bordeaux  mixture, 
4_4-50.  Make  three  or  four  additional  sprayings  during  the 
season.  The  following  spring  spray  just  before  blossoming,  and 
again  in  ten  to  fourteen  days.  If  the  bed  is  to  be  fruited  again, 
mow  the  plants  and  bum  over  the  bed  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  off. 
Mildew  (SphcFrothcca  cuMagnei).  —  A  whitish  cobweb-like  mildew 
on  fruit  and  leaves,  causing  the  latter  to  curl. 

Control.  —  Spraying  as  for  leaf -spot  ;  dusting  with  sulfur  flour. 
Sweet-potato.  Black-rot  {Ceratocystis  fimbriata) .  —  Causing  black 
shank  of  the  plant  and  a  black  rot  of  the  tuber.  The  spots  on 
the  tuber  are  greenish  black,  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  four 
inches  in  diameter  and  extending  for  some  distance  into  the 
tissue. 

Control.  —  Never  use  affected  potatoes  from  which  to  grow 
sprouts.  Steam-sterilize  the  soil  in  the  hotbed.  Practice  rotation. 
Rots.  —  The  sweet-potato  is  susceptible  to  a  large  number  of  rots, 
soft,  dry,  hard,  white,  etc.  In  practically^  all  cases  the  organism 
producing  the  disease  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  soil.  The  best 
method  of  preventing  these  diseases  is  to  use  perfectly  sound 
potatoes  for  sprouts  and  plant  on  soil  which  has  not  grown  sweet- 
potatoes  for  several  years. 
Tobacco.  Root-rot  {Thielavia  hasicola).  —  A  rot  of  the  main  root 
and  dwarfs  the  plants.     Occurs  both  in  seed-bed  and  field. 

Control.  —  Steam-sterilize   the   seed-bed   by  the   inverted  pan 
method.     (Soe  discussion  on  p.  253.)     Rotate  crops.     Avoid  lim- 
ing, and  add  acid  fertilizers. 
Wilt  {Bacterium  solanacearum).  —  A  wilt  of  the  plants  caused  by 
bacteria. 

Control.  —  Very  difTicult  to  control,  as  the  organism  lives  in  the 
soil  for  years.  Never  jilant  on  land  known  to  be  diseased.  Do 
not  cultivate  related  plants,  as  potato,  tomato,  egg  plant,  or  pepper, 
on   the   same  soil.     Transplant  early,   and  avoid   breaking  the 


TOM  A  TO  —  VIOLET  283 

roots.  Where  tobacco  is  grown  under  shade  (as  is  now  a  common 
practice)  the  soil  should  be  steam-steriHzed. 
Tomato.  Bacterial  blight.  —  See  Tobacco  Wilt. 
Blight  or  Scab  {Cladosporium  fulvum).  —  Soft  brown  irregular 
spots  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  upper  surface  be- 
comes spotted  with  yellow.  The  leaves  finally  wither  and  die. 
Most  serious  in  the  greenhouse. 

Control.  —  In  mild  cases  the  disease  can  be  prevented  by  pick- 
ing off  the  affected  leaves.     In  severe  cases  spray  with  bordeaux 
mixture,  4-4-50,  at  intervals  of  ten  days. 
Downy  mildew^  (Phytophthora  infedans).  —  The  same  fungus  that 

causes  Potato-blight,  which  see  (p.  279). 
End-rot.  —  Not  well  understood,  and  no  method  of  control  is  known. 
Leaf-spot  (Septoria  lycopersica) .  —  A  serious  disease  attacking  leaves 
and  stems.  At  first  small  spots  appear,  which  spread  until  the  whole 
leaf  is  consumed.     In  severe  cases  the  fruit  may  also  be  attacked. 
Control.  —  Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  making  the 
first  application  two  weeks  after  the  plants  are  set  out,  and  repeating 
every  two  weeks  throughout  the  growing  season. 
(Edema.  —  A  diseased  condition  of  forced  tomatoes  characterized 
by  rolled    or    curled   leaves,   distended   veins,   and  by  swollen 
areas  having  a  frosty  appearance  on  leaf  veins,  petioles  and  stem. 
This  condition  may  be  brought  about  by   insufficient  light,  too 
much  water  in  soil,  excessive  fertilization,  high  soil  temperature. 
Prevention.  —  Avoid  conditions  favorable  for  the  disease.    Pro- 
vide good  ventilation  in  forcing-house;    in  field,  cultivate  deep 
and  avoid  topping  plants.      (See  p.  260.) 
Violet.     Leaf-spots  and  leaf-blights.  —  A  number  of  different  or- 
ganisms are  responsible.     Usually  not  very  destructive. 

Control.  —  Destroy  affected  plants;  use  fresh  soil  for  new 
plantings;  spray  the  fohage  in  the  summer  and  fall  with  bor- 
deaux mixture,  4-4-50. 
Root-rot  {Thielavia  hasicola).  —  The  same  as  the  root-rot  of 
tobacco.  The  plants  make  poor  growth,  owing  to  the  fungus  on 
the  roots. 

Con^roZ.  — Start  in  steam-sterilized  soil,  and  transfer  to  sterilized 
beds. 
Wheat-Smut.  —  See  under  Smut  of  cereals  (p.  260). 


284 


PLANT  DISEASES 


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CHAPTER  XVII 

Insecticidal  Materials  and  Practices 

By  C.  R.  Crosby 

The  results  secured  from  the  use  of  an  insecticide  or  fungicide  depend 
upon  the  operator.  Timeliness,  thoroughness,  and  persistence  are  the 
watchwords  of  success.  It  is  easier  to  keep  an  enemy  away  than  to 
drive  him  away.  The  worst  foes  are  often  the  smallest  ones  ;  and  the 
injury  is  often  done  before  they  are  detected.     Be  ready;  begin  early. 

General  Practices 

Cleanliness.  —  Much  can  be  done  to  check  the  ravages  of  insects  by  de- 
stroying their  breeding-places  and  hiding-places.  Weeds,  rub- 
bish, and  refuse  should  be  eliminated. 

Hand-picking  is  often  still  the  best  means  of  destroying  insects,  despite 
all  the  perfection  of  machinery  and  of  materials.  This  is  partic- 
ularly true  about  the  home  grounds  and  in  the  garden.  The  cul- 
tivator should  not  scorn  this  method. 

Promoting  growth.  —  Any  course  that  tends  to  promote  vigor  will 
be  helpful  in  enabling  plants  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  plant- 
lice  and  other  insects. 

Burning.  —  Larva?  which  live  or  feed  in  webs,  like  the  tent-caterpillar 
and  fall  web- worm,  may  be  burned  with  a  torch.  The  lamp  or 
torch  u.sed  in  campaign  parades  finds  its  most  efficient  use  here. 

Banding.  —  To  prevent  the  ascent  of  canker-worm  moths  and  gypsy- 
moth  ratcrpillars,  various  forms  of  sticky  bands  are  in  use.  For 
this  purpose  there  is  no  better  substance  than  Tree  Tanglefoot. 
It  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  tree-trunk,  but  when  so  used 
leaves  an  unsightly  mark  and  requires  more  material  than  when 
the  following  method  is  used  :  — 
First  place  a  strip  of  cotton  batting  three  inches  wide  around 
286 


FUMIGATION  287 

the  trunk  ;  cover  this  with  a  strip  of  tarred  paper  five  inches  wide  ; 
draw  the  paper  tight  and  fasten  at  the  lap  only  with  three  or  four 
tacks.  Spread  the  tanglefoot  on  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  paper, 
and  comb  it  from  time  to  time  to  keep  the  surface  sticky. 

Burlap  bands  are  made  by  tying  or  tacking  a  strip  of  burlap 
around  the  trunk  and  letting  the  edges  hang  down.  The  larvas 
will  hide  under  the  loose  edge,  where  they  may  be  killed. 

Banding  is  now  little  used  for  the  codlin-moth,  since  spraying 
with  poison  has  been  found  so  much  more  effective. 
Fumigation.  —  Fumigating  or  "  smoking  "  or  "  smudging  "  in  green- 
houses is  performed  by  the  slow  burning  of  tobacco-stems.  Best 
results  are  obtained  when  a  sheet  iron  vessel  made  for  the  purpose 
is  used,  having  holes  in  the  bottom  to  supply  draft.  A  quart 
of  Uve  coals  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  about  a  pailful 
of  tobacco-stems  is  laid  on  them.  The  stems  should  not  blaze, 
but  burn  with  a  slow  smudge.  If  they  are  slightly  damp,  better 
results  are  obtained.  Some  plants  are  injured  by  a  very  heavy 
smoke,  and  in  order  to  avoid  this  injury,  and  also  to  more  effec- 
tually destroy  the  insects,  it  is  better  to  smoke  rather  lightly  and 
often.  It  is  always  well  to  smoke  on  two  consecutive  days,  for  the 
insects  which  persist  through  the  first  treatment,  being  weak,  will 
be  killed  by  the  second.  If  the  plants  are  wet,  the  smoke  is  more 
hkely  to  scorch  them.  The  smudge  often  injures  flowers,  as  those 
of  roses  and  chrysanthemums.  In  order  to  avoid  this  injury,  the 
flowers  should  be  covered  with  paper  bags.  Tobacco  fumes  can 
be  conveniently  generated  by  burning  strips  of  prepared  nico- 
tine paper,  or  by  vaporizing  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution  of 
nicotine  in  pans  over  alcohol  or  special  kerosene  lamps. 

Fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  —  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas 
is  a  deadly  poison,  and  the  greatest  care  is  required  in  its  use.  Al- 
ways use  98  to  100  per  cent  pure  potassium  cyanide  and  a  good 
grade  of  commercial  sulfuric  acid.  The  chemicals  are  always  com- 
bined in  the  following  proportion  :  Potassium  cyanide,  1  ounce  ; 
sulfuric  acid,  1  fluid  ounce  ;  water,  3  fluid  ounces.  Always  use  an 
earthen  dish,  pour  in  the  water  first,  and  add  the  sulfuric  acid  to 
it.  Put  the  required  amount  of  cyanide  in  a  thin  paper  bag,  and 
when  all  is  ready,  drop  it  into  the  liquid  and  leave  the  room 
immediately.    For  mills  and  dwellings,  use  one  ounce  of  cyanide 


f88  INSECTICIDAL   MATERIALS   AND   PRACTICES 

for  every  100  cubic  feet  of  space.  Make  the  doors  and  windows 
as  tight  as  possible  by  placing  strips  of  paper  over  the  cracks. 
Remove  the  silverware  and  food,  and  if  brass  and  nickel  work 
cannot  be  removed,  cover  with  vaseline.  Place  the  proper 
amount  of  the  acid  and  water  for  every  room  in  two-gallon  jars. 
Use  two  or  more  in  large  rooms  or  halls.  Weigh  out  the  potas- 
sium cyanide  in  paper  bags,  and  place  them  near  the  jars. 
When  all  is  ready,  drop  the  cyanide  into  the  jars,  beginning  on 
the  top  floors,  since  the  fumes  are  lighter  than  air.  In  large  build- 
ings, it  is  frequently  necessary  to  suspend  the  bags  of  cyanide  over 
the  jars  by  cords  running  through  screw-eyes  and  all  leading  to  a 
place  near  the  door.  By  cutting  all  the  cords  at  once,  the 
cyanide  will  be  lowered  into  the  jars  and  the  operator  may  escape 
without  injury.  Let  the  fumigation  continue  all  night,  locking 
all  outside  doors,  and  place  danger  signs  on  the  house. 

Fumigation  of  greenhouses.  —  No  general  formula  can  be  given 
for  fumigating  the  different  kinds  of  plants  grown  in  greenhouses, 
as  the  species  and  varieties  differ  greatly  in  their  ability  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  the  gas.  Ferns  and  roses  are  very  susceptible 
to  injury,  and  fumigation,  if  attempted  at  all,  should  be  per- 
formed with  great  caution.  Fumigation  will  not  kill  insect  eggs, 
and  thus  must  be  repeated  when  the  new  brood  appears.  Fumi- 
gate only  on  dark  nights  when  there  is  no  wind.  Have  the 
house  as  dry  as  possible,  and  the  temperature  as  near  60°  as  prac- 
ticable. 

Fumigation  of  dormant  nursery  stock.  —  Dormant  nursery  stock 
may  be  fumigated  in  a  tight  box  or  fumigating  house  made  espe- 
cially for  the  purpose.  Fumigating  houses  are  built  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  matched  boards  with  building  paper  between,  and  are 
provided  with  a  tight-fitting  door  and  ventilators.  The  stock 
should  be  rea.sonal)ly  dry  to  avoid  injury,  and  should  be  piled 
loosely  in  the  hou.se  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  the  gas.  Use 
one  ounce  of  potassium  cyanide  for  each  100  cubic  feet  of  space, 
and  let  the  fumigation  continue  forty  minutes  to  one  hour. 

Fumigation  of  citrus  trees.  —  In  this  case  the  tree  is  covered 
with  an  octagonal  sheet  tent  made  of  6i  ounce  special  drill  or  8 
ounce  special  army  duck,  and  the  gas  is  generated  in  the  ordinary 
way  beneath  it.     The  tent  is  so  marked  that  when  in  position  it  is 


FUMIGATIOir 


289 


an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  distance  over  the  tent  and  the  cir- 
cumference at  the  ground.     When  these  figures  are  known,  the 


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Dosage  chart  for  fumigating  citrus  trees  (Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

proper  dosage  may  be  obtained  from  the  above  chart,  which 
has  been  prepared  for  a  strength  of  one  ounce  of  cyanide  for 
each  100  cubic  feet  of  space. 


L'90  JNSECTICIDAL   MATERIALS   AND   PRACTICES 

The  top  line  of  numbers,  beginning  at  10  and  continuing  to  7S, 
represents  the  distance  in  feet  around  the  bottom  of  the  tent.  The 
outer  vertical  columns  of  larger  numbers  running  from  10  to  59  rep- 
resent the  distance  in  feet  over  the  top  of  the  tent.  The  number  of 
ounces  of  cyanide  to  use  for  a  tree  of  known  dimensions  is  found 
in  that  sciuare  where  the  vertical  column  headed  by  the  distance 
around  the  tree  intersects  the  horizontal  line  of  figures  correspond- 
ing to  the  distance  over. 
Using  Jungmni  diseases  as  insecticides.  —  Fungous  diseases  have  been 
successfully  emi)loyed  against  the  citrus  white-fly  in  Florida. 
There  are  seven  species  of  fungus  which  attack  the  white-fly,  and 
nearly  all  are  more  or  less  valuable.  The  object  is  to  introduce 
some  form  of  the  fungus  into  orchards  and  on  trees  where  it  is 
absent.  Thi.s  may  be  accomplished  by  spraying  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  with  a  mixture  of  fungus  spores  in  water.  The 
mixture  may  be  made  by  placing  two  or  three  fungus-bearing 
leaves  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  stirring  occasionally  for  fifteen 
minutes.  Strain  through  cheesecloth,  and  apply  to  those  parts  of 
the  tree  most  badly  infested  with  the  white-fly  larvie. 

The  fungus  may  be  introduced  by  pinning  a  dozen  or  so  fungus- 
bearing  leaves  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  the  tree  infested 
with  white-fly.  The  fungus-covered  surface  should  face  downward. 


Insecticidal  Substances 

Arsenic.  —  Known  to  chemists  as  arsenious  acid,  or  white  oxide  of 
arsenic.  It  is  considered  an  unsafe  insecticide,  as  its  color  allows 
it  to  be  mistaken  for  other  substances  ;  but  in  its  various  com- 
pounds it  forms  our  best  insecticides.  From  one  to  two  grains, 
or  less,  usually  prove  fatal  to  an  adult;  30  grains  will  usually 
kill  a  horse,  10  grains  a  cow  ;  and  1  grain,  or  less,  is  usually 
fatal  to  a  dog.  In  ca.se  of  poisoning,  while  awaiting  the  arrival 
of  a  physician,  give  emetics,  and,  after  free  vomiting,  give  milk 
and  eggs.     Sugar  and  magnesia  in  milk  is  useful. 

A  cheap  and  effective  in.secticide  may  be  prepared  from  white 
arsenic  by  the  following  methods :  — 

For  use  with  bordeaux  mixture  only.    Sal  soda,  2  pounds;   water, 
1  gallon;  arsenic,  1  pound.     Mix  the  white  arsenic  into  a  paste,  and 


ARSENICALS  291 

then  add  the  sal  soda  and  water,  and  boil  until  dissolved.  Add 
water  to  replace  any  that  has  boiled  away,  so  that  one  gallon  of 
stock  solution  is  the  result.  Use  one  quart  of  this  stock  solution 
to  50  gallons  of  bordeaux  mixture  for  fruit-trees.  Make  sure 
there  is  enough  hme  in  the  bordeaux  mixture  to  prevent  the  caus- 
tic action  of  the  arsenic. 

For  use  without  bordeaux  mixture.  Sal  soda,  1  pound ;  water,  1 
gallon;  white  arsenic,  1  pound;  quicklime,  2  pounds.  Dissolve 
the  white  arsenic  with  the  water  and  sal  soda  as  above,  and  use 
this  solution  while  hot  to  slake  the  2  pounds  of  lime.  Add 
enough  water  to  make  2  gallons.  Use  2  quarts  of  this  stock 
solution  in  50  gallons  of  water. 
Arsenicals.  —  A  term  popularly  used  for  compounds  of  arsenic.  The 
leading  arsenicals  used  in  destroying  insects  are  arsenate  of 
lead,  paris  green,  and  london  purple. 

Arsenate  of  Lead.  —  This  can  be  applied  in  a  stronger  mixture  than 
other  arsenical  poisons,  without  injuring  the  foliage.  It  is,  there- 
fore, much  used  against  beetles  and  other  insects  that  are  hard  to 
poison.  It  comes  in  the  form  of  a  paste  or  powder,  and  sliould  be 
mixed  thoroughly  with  a  small  amount  of  water  before  placing  in 
the  sprayer,  else  the  nozzles  will  clog.  Arsenate  of  lead  may  be 
used  with  either  bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulfur  without  lessen- 
ing the  value  of  either.  It  is  used  in  strengths  varying  from  4  to  10 
pounds  per  100  gallons,  depending  on  the  kind  of  insect  to  be  killed. 

London  Purple.  —  An  arsenite  of  lime,  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  dyes.  The  composition  is  variable. 
The  amount  of  arsenic  varies  from  30  to  50  per  cent.  The  two 
following  anah^ses  show  its  composition  :  (1)  Arsenic,  43.65  per 
cent;  rose  anihne,  12.46;  lime,  12.82;  insoluble  residue,  14.57; 
iron  oxide,  1.16;  and  water,  2.27.  (2)  Arsenic,  55.35  per  cent; 
lime,  26.23;  sulfuric  acid,  0.22;  carbonic  acid,  0.27;  moisture, 
5.29.  It  is  a  finer  powder  than  paris  green,  and  therefore  remains 
longer  in  suspension  in  water.  It  is  used  in  the  same  manner  a-s 
paris  green,  but  is  sometimes  found  to  be  more  caustic  on  foliage. 
This  injury  is  due  to  the  presence  of  much  soluble  arsenic;  but  it 
can  be  averted  by  the  use  of  lime,  as  advised  under  paris  green. 

Paris  Green.  — An  aceto-arsenite  of  copper.  When  pure  it  contains 
9,bout  58  per  cent  of  arsenic.    By  the  provisions  of  the  federal 


202  I.\SKCTICII)AL    MATERIALS   AXD    PRACTICES 

insecticide  act  of  1010,  jiaris  srocn  must  contain  at  least  50  per 
cent  of  arsenious  oxitlo,  and  must  not  contain  arsenic  in  water- 
soluble  form  ecjuivalent  to  more  than  31  per  cent  of  arsenious 
oxide.  It  is  applied  in  either  a  wet  or  dry  condition  ;  but  in  any 
case,  it  must  be  nmch  diluted.  For  making  a  dry  mixture,  plaster, 
flour,  air-slaked  lime,  road  dust,  or  sifted  wood  ashes  may  be 
used.  The  strength  of  the  mixture  depends  upon  the  plants  and 
insects  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  The  strongest  dry  mixture 
now  recommended  is  one  part  of  poison  to  fifty  of  the  diluent ; 
but  if  the  mixing  is  very  thoroughly  done,  1  part  to  100,  or  even 
200,  is  sufficient. 

Paris  green  is  practically  insoluble  in  water.  When  mixed  with 
water,  the  mixture  must  be  kept  in  a  constant  state  of  agitation, 
else  the  poison  will  settle,  and  the  liquid  from  the  bottom  of  the 
cask  will  be  so  strong  as  to  do  serious  damage,  while  that  from 
the  top  will  be  useless.  For  potatoes,  apple-trees,  and  most 
species  of  shade  trees,  1  pound  of  poison  to  200  or  250  gallons  of 
water  is  a  good  mixture.  Paris  green  is  very  likely  to  burn  the 
foliage  of  stone  fruits,  especially  peaches  and  Japanese  plums, 
and  has  been  generally  replaced  by  arsenate  of  lead  for  such 
purposes.  In  all  cases,  the  liquid  should  be  applied  with  force,  in 
a  very  fine  spray.  At  some  seasons  of  the  j^ar  foliage  is  more 
liable  to  injury  than  at  others.  The  addition  of  a  little  lime  (twice 
the  bulk  of  lime  as  of  paris  green)  to  the  mixture  will  tend  to 
prevent  any  caustic  injury  upon  the  foliage. 

Spraying  with  paris  green  or  london  purple  does  not  endanger 
stock  pastured  in  the  orchard. 
CoMBLNWTiONS  OF  Arsemcals  AND  FuNGiciDES.  —  Arscuicals  may 
be  used  in  connection  with  some  fungicides,  and  both  insects  and 
plant  disea.ses  in  this  manner  may  be  coml:)ated  at  the  same  time. 
The  arsenicals  may  be  added  to  bordeaux  mixture  in  the  same 
proportion  as  if  the  bordeaux  were  plain  water.  Arsenate  of  lead 
may  be  added  to  the  lime-sulfur  wash,  but  the  addition  of  paris 
green  or  arsenite  of  lime  is  liable  to  cause  burning. 

The  addition  of  lime  to  paris  green  and  london  purple  mixtures 
greatly  lessens  injury  to  foliage,  and,  as  a  conseciuence,  th(\v  can 
be  applied  several  times  stronger  than  ordinarily  used,  if  tliey 
are  combined  with  the  bordeaux  mixture.     The  free  lime  in  the 


VARIOUS  INSECTICIDES  293 

mixture  combines  with  the  soluble  arsenic,  which  is  the  material 
that  injures  the  foliage,  and  the  combination  is  thus  made  quite 
harmless. 

Bait.  Vegetable  bait.  —  Spray  a  patch  of  clover  or  some  other  plant 
that  the  insects  will  eat  with  paris  green  or  some  other  arsenical; 
mow  it  close  to  the  ground,  and  while  fresh  place  it  in  small  piles 
around  the  infested  plants.  To  avoid  wilting  of  the  bait,  cover 
the  heaps  with  a  shingle  or  piece  of  board. 

Bran-arsenic  mash.  White  arsenic,  1  pound,  or  paris  green,  1  pound; 
bran,  50  pounds.  Mix  thoroughly  and  then  add  enough  water  to 
make  a  wet  mash. 

Sugar  or  molasses  may  be  added,  but  is  unnecessary.  Poison- 1 
baits  are  used  against  cutworms  and  grasshoppers.  See  Criddle 
Mixture,  below. 

Bisulfid  of  carbon.  —  A  thin  liquid  which  volatilizes  at  a  very  low 
temperature,  the  vapor  being  very  destructive  to  animal  life.  It  is 
exceedingly  inflammable,  and  should  never  be  used  near  a  lamp  or 
fire.  It  is  used  for  many  root-insects.  It  is  poured  into  a  hole, 
which  is  immediately  closed  up,  causing  the  fumes  to  permeate  the 
soil  in  all  directions.  In  loose  soils  it  is  very  destructive  to  insect;.. 
Against  weevils  infesting  stored  grain  and  corn,  carbon  bisulfi  1 
is  effective  at  the  rate  of  5  pounds  for  each  1000  cubic  feet,  pro- 
vided the  application  is  made  while  the  temperature  is  not  below 
65°  F.  Make  the  bins  as  tight  as  possible,  and  after  sprinkliii  ^ 
the  liquid  over  the  grain,  cover  tightly  with  gas-proof  tarpaulin. 
Let  the  fumigation  continue  for  at  least  twent^'-four  hours. 

Carbolic  acid  and  soap  mixtures.  —  One  ounce  crude  carbolic  aci^l  ; 
1  pound  fish-oil  soap;  1  gallon  hot  water.  Mix  thoroughly.  This 
wash  is  used  for  borers.  Apply  with  a  cloth  or  soft  broom.  Usv, 
only  on  dormant  wood. 

Carbolic  acid  emidsion.  —  Soap,  1  pound;  water,  1  gallon;  crude  car- 
bolic acid  (90  per  cent  strength),  1  pint.  Dissolve  the  soap  in 
hot  water ;  add  the  carbolic  acid,  and  agitate  into  an  emulsion. 
For  use  against  root-maggots,  dilute  with  30  parts  of  water. 

Carbon  bisulfid.  —  See  Bisulfid  of  Carbon,  above. 

Criddle  mixture.  —  Mix  1  pound  of  paris  green  with  I  barrel  of  horsa 
droppings,  and  add  1  pound  of  salt  if  the  material  is  not  fresh. 
For  use  against  grasshoppers. 


294  INSECTICIDAL   MATERIALS   AND   PRACTICES 

Distillate  emuhion.  —  5  gallons  of  28°  grax'ity  untreated  distillate  ; 
5  gallons  boiling  water,  \\  pounds  whale-oil  soap.  Dissolve  the 
soap  in  hot  water,  add  the  distillate,  and  thoroughly  emulsify  by 
means  of  a  power  pump  until  a  yellowish,  creamy  emulsion  is 
produced.  For  use  on  lemon  dilute  with  12  parts  of  water; 
on  orange,  with  15  parts. 

Formerly  much  used  on  citrus  trees,  but  now  generall}'  replaced 
by  fumigation. 

Hellebore.  —  See  White  Hellebore,  p.  300. 

Hot  water.  —  Submerge  affected  plants  or  branches  in  water  at  a 
temperature  of  about  125°.  For  aphis.  It  will  also  kill  rose-bugs 
at  a  temperature  of  125°-135°. 

Kerosene  emulsion.  —  Hard,  soft,  or  whale-oil  soap,  i  pound ;  water, 
1  gallon ;  kerosene,  2  gallons.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water  ; 
remove  from  the  fire  and  while  still  hot  add  the  kerosene.  Pump 
the  liquid  back  into  itself  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  or  until  it 
becomes  a  creamy  mass.  If  properly  made,  the  oil  will  not  sep- 
arate out  on  cooling. 

For  use  on  dormant  trees,  dilute  with  from  5  to  7  parts  of  water. 
For  killing  plant-lice  on  foliage  dilute  with  from  10  to  15  parts  of 
water.  Crude  oil  emulsion  is  made  in  the  same  way  by  substitut- 
ing crude  oil  in  place  of  kerosene.  The  strength  of  oil  emulsions  is 
frequently  indicated  by  the  percentage  of  oil  in  the  diluted  liquid:  — 
For  a  10  per  cent  emulsion  add  17  gallons  of  water  to  3  gallons 
stock  emulsion. 

For  a  15  per  cent  emulsion  add  lOj  gallons  of  water  to  3  gallons 
stock  emulsion. 

For  a  20  per  cent  emulsion  add  7  gallons  of  water  to  3  gallons 
stock  emulsion. 

For  a  25  per  cent  emulsion  add  5  gallons  of  water  to  3  gallons 
stock  emulsion. 

Lead,  arsenate  of.  —  See  under  Arsenical.s,  ]).  291. 

Lime-suljur.  — A  compound  of  lime  and  sulfur  makes  both  a  good  insec- 
ticide and  a  good  fungicide  (for  an  account  from  the  fungicide  point 
of  view,  see  page  256).  There  are  several  forms  of  it,  as  (1)  the 
ordinary  dilute  home-made  ;  (2)  the  concentrated  home-made  ; 
(3)  the  commercial  concentrated  brands  ;  (4)  the  so-called  self- 
boiled  preparation.     The  three  first  are  solutions,  and  are  modi- 


LIME-SULFUR  l".).-) 

fications  of  one  preparation  ;  the  self-boiled  is  mostly  a  mechanical 
mixture  of  the  lime  and  sulfur. 

1.  Home-made  dilute  solution  of  lime-sulfur.  —  (^uick  lime, 'JO 
pounds;  sulfur  (flour  or  flowers),  15  pounds;  water,  50  gallon>\ 
The  lime  and  sulfur  must  be  thoroughly  boiled.  An  iron  kettle 
is  often  convenient  for  the  work.  Proceed  as  follows:  Place  the 
lime  in  the  kettle.  Add  hot  water  gradually  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  produce  the  most  rapid  slaking  of  the  lime.  When  the 
lime  begins  to  slake,  add  the  sulfur  and  stir  together.  If  con- 
venient, keep  the  mixture  covered  with  burlap  to  save  the  heat. 
After  slaking  has  ceased,  add  more  water,  and  boil  the  mixture 
one  hour.  As  the  sulfur  goes  into  solution,  a  rich  orange-red  or 
dark  green  color  will  appear.  After  boiling  sufficiently,  add  water 
to  the  required  amount  and  strain  into  the  spray  tank.  The  wash 
is  most  effective  when  applied  warm,  but  may  be  applied  cold.  If 
one  has  access  to  a  steam  boiler,  boiling  with  steam  is  more  con- 
venient and  satisfactory.  Barrels  may  be  used  for  holding  the 
mixture,  and  the  steam  applied  by  running  a  pipe  or  rubber  hose 
into  the  mixture.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  for  boiUng  in 
the  kettle  until  the  lime  is  slaked,  when  the  steam  may  be  turned 
on.  Continue  boiling  for  forty-five  minutes  to  an  hour,  or  more 
if  necessary  to  get  the  sulfur  well  dissolved. 

This  mixture  can  be  applied  safely  only  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant, —  late  in  the  autumn  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  or  early 
in  the  spring  before  the  buds  swell.  It  is  mainly  an  insecticide 
for  San  Jose  scale,  although  it  has  considerable  value  as  a  fungi- 
cide for  certain  diseases,  like  the  peach  leaf-curl.  As  the  San 
Jose  scale  is  not  killed  unless  the  solution  comes  in  contact  with 
it,  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  completely  cover  the  branches. 

2.  Home-made  concentrated  lime-sulfur  wash. 

For  making  the  concentrated  mixture,  the  steps  are  the  same 
as  in  making  the  usual  boiled  wash,  but  the  following  formula 
should  be  used  :  — 

iPure  calcium  oxide 36  lb. 
95  per  ct.  calcium  oxide 38  lb. 
90  per  ct.  calcium  oxide wn  Ik' 


296 


INSEVTICIDAL    MATERIALS    AND    PRACTICES 


Slakt'  tlu'  linu',  make  a  thin  i)asto,  and  add  the  sulfur.  Flowers 
of  sulfur  or  li^ht  or  heavy  sulfur  flour  may  be  used.  The  lime 
should  be  fresh  lump  lime,  free  from  dirt  and  grit,  containing  90 
per  cent  or  more  of  calcium  oxide  and  less  than  5  per  cent  of 
magnesium  oxide.  Stir  thoroughly  during  the  hour  of  cooking, 
to  break  up  the  lumps  of  sulfur.  Enough  water  should  be  added 
at  the  start  so  that  the  evaporation  will  not  leave  the  quantity 
less  than  50  gallons  when  the  cooking  is  ended.  If  kettles  are 
used,  10  to  15  gallons  additional  will  be  needed,  while  with 
steam  none  may  be  recjuired.  The  kettles  should  be  considerably 
larger  than  the  amount  of  wash  to  be  made,  to  prevent  loss  of 
material  by  boiling  over.  The  clear  liquid  should  be  drawn  off 
into  tight  containers  if  to  be  kept  any  considerable  time  ;  and 
stored  where  there  is  no  danger  of  temperatures  much  below 
freezing.  For  use,  test  the  clear  solution  with  the  hydrometer, 
and  dilute  as  indicated  in  the  table  :  — 

Dilutions    of  Concentrated  Lime-Sulfur  Solutions  for  Spraying 
(N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.) 


S    r. 

With  Each  Gallon  of 

'^^r-. 

With  Each 

Gallon  op 

kS 

it 

CONCENTR. 

^TE,  Use  — 

U  S 

it 

Concentrate,  Use  — 

n 

a  < 

For  San 

For  Blister 

%t 

£^ 

For  San 

For  Blister 

Qffl 

MU 

Jo86  scale 

Mite 

QM 

mO 

Jos6  scale 

Mite 

Gala,  water 

Gals,  water 

Gals,  water 

Gals,  water 

35 

1.3181 

9 

12 

25 

1.2083 

bh 

7i 

34 

1.3063 

8J 

lU 

24 

1.1983 

b\ 

7 

33 

1.2946 

8 

11 

23 

1.1885 

Al 

6i 

32 

1.2831 

7i 

10} 

22 

1.1788 

4i 

6i 

31 

1.2719 

7i 

10 

21 

1.1693 

41 

5J 

30 

1.2608 

7 

9i 

20 

1.1600 

4 

5i 

29 

1.2500 

6J 

9 

19 

1.1507 

33 

5 

28 

1.2393 

6i 

81 

18 

1.1417 

3i 

4J 

27 

1.2288 

6 

8i 

17 

1.1328 

3 

4i 

26 

1.2184 

5i 

7i 

16 

1.1240 

2i 

4 

15 

1.1153 

2i 

3J 

3.  Commercial  concentrated  mixtures. 

The  lime-sulfur  may  be  purchased  in  the  concentrated  form  and 
the  trouble  of  making  it  avoided.  The  strength  of  the  commercial 
product  varies  considerably,  and  in  order  to  compute  the  proper 
dilution  correctly  the  strength  should  be  determined  by  means  of 
a  hydrometer.     Having  determined  the  strength  of   the  concen- 


VARIOUS  INSECTICIDES  207 

trated  mixture,  the  proper  dilution  for  use  against  the  San  Jos^ 
scale  and   blister  mite  may  be    obtained   from  the    table    on 
opposite  page. 
4.    Self -boiled.     See  page  257. 

London  purple.  — See  under  Arsenicals,  p.  291. 

Miscible  oils. —  There  are  now  on  the  market  a  number  of  prepara- 
tions of  petroleum  and  other  oils  intended  primarily  for  use 
against  the  San  Jose  scale.  They  mix  readily  with  cold  water, 
and  are  immediately  ready  for  use.  While  quickly  prepared, 
easily  applied,  and  generally  effective,  they  cost  considerably 
more  than  lime-sulfur  wash.  They  are,  however,  less  corrosive 
to  the  pumps,  and  more  agreeable  to  use.  They  are  especially 
valuable  to  the  man  with  only  a  few  trees  or  shrubs  who  would  not 
care  to  go  to  the  trouble  and  expense  to  make  up  the  lime-sulfur 
wash.  For  use  they  should  be  diluted  with  15  parts  of  water. 
Use  only  on  dormant  trees,  and  when  the  temperature  is  above 
freezing  and  the  trees  are  not  wet. 

Paraffine  oil.  —  Essentially  the  same  as  Kerosene,  which  see  (p.  294). 

Paris  green.  —  See  under  Arsenicals,  p.  291. 

Persian  insect  powder.  —  See  Pyrethrum. 

Pyrethrum.  —  A  very  fine  and  light  brown  powder,   made  from   the 
flower-heads  of  species  of  pyrethrum.     It  is  scarcely  injurious  to 
man.     Three  brands  are  on  the  market  :  — 
Persian  Insect-powder,  made  from  the  heads  of  Pyrethrum  roseum, 
a  species  also  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  plant.     The  plant  is 
native  to  the  Caucasus  region. 
Delmation  Insect-powder,  made  from  Pyrethrum  cimrariwJoUum. 
BuHACH,   made  in  California  from  cultivated   plants  of    Pyrethrum 
cineraricefolium. 

When  fresh  and  pure,  all  these  brands  appear  to  be  equally  val- 
uable, but  the  home-grown  product  is  usually  considered  most 
reliable.  Pyrethrum  soon  loses  its  value  when  exposed  to  the 
air.     It  is  used  in  various  ways  :  — 

1.  In  solution  in  water,  1  ounce  to  3  gallons.  Should  be 
mixed  up  twenty-four  hours  before  using. 

2.  Dry,  without  dilution.  In  this  form  it  is  excellent  for  thrips 
and  lice  on  roses  and  other  bushes.  Apply  when  the  bush  is  wet. 
Useful  for  aphis  on  house  plants. 


298  INSKCTICIDAL    MATERIALS   AND   PRACTICES 

3.  Dry,  diluted  witli  flour  or  any  light  and  fine  powder.  The 
poison  may  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  from  6  to  30  of 
the  diluent. 

4.  In  fumigation.  It  may  be  scattered  directly  upon  coals,  or 
made  into  small  balls  by  wetting  and  molding  with  the  hands  and 
then  set  upon  coals.  This  is  a  desirable  way  of  dealing  with 
mosquitoes  and  flies. 

5.  In  alcohol.  (1)  Put  a  part  of  pyrethrum  (buhach)  and  4 
parts  alcohol,  by  weight,  in  any  tight  vessel.  Shake  occasionally, 
and  after  eight  days  filter.  Apply  with  an  atomizer.  Excellent 
for  greenhouse  pests.  For  some  plants  it  needs  to  be  diluted  a 
little.  (2)  Dissolve  about  4  ounces  of  powder  in  1  gill  of  alcohol, 
and  add  12  gallons  of  water. 

6.  Decoction.  Whole  flower-heads  are  treated  to  boiling 
water,  and  the  liquid  is  covered  to  prevent  evaporation.  Boiling 
the  li(iuid  destroys  its  value. 

Good  insect-powder  can  be  made  from  Pyrethrum  roseum,  and 
probably  also  from  P.  cinerariwfoliuni,  grown  in  the  home 
garden. 
Resin  and  fish-oil  corn-pound.  —  Ten  pounds  of  resin  ;  1|  pounds  of 
fish-oil,  3  pounds  of  caustic  soda,  and  enough  water  to  make  50 
gallons. 

Break  the  resin  into  small  lumps,  and  place  it  together  with  the 
caustic  soda  in  the  boiler,  with  three  or  four  inches  of  water. 
Stir  till  the  resin  is  dissolved  ;  then  add  about  one-fourth  of  the 
required  water  and  boil  one-half  hour.  Place  in  the  spray  tank 
and  add  the  rest  of  the  water. 

Used  in  California  against  the  cottony  cushion  scale  and  the 
brown  apricot  scale. 
Soaps,  whale-oil,  or  fish-oil  soap.  —  Soaps  are  effective  insecticides  for 
plant-lice.  Dissolve  in  hot  water  and  dilute  so  as  to  obtain  1 
pound  of  soap  for  every  5  or  7  gallons  of  water.  Commercial 
whale-oil  or  fish-oil  soaps  frequently  injure  tender  foliage  be- 
cau.se  of  the  free  alkali  which  they  contain. 

An  excellent  fish-oil  soap  free  from  uncombined  alkali  may  be 
easily  prepared  at  home,  as  follows : 

Six  pounds  of  caustic  soda  ;  U  gallons  of  water  ;  22  pounds 
of  fish  oil. 


VARIOUS   INSECTICIDES  l>yy 

Completely  dissolve  the  caustic  soda  in  the  water,  and  then  add 
the  fish-oil  very  gradually,  under  constant  and  vigorous  stirring. 
The  combination  occurs  readily  at  ordinary  summer  temperatures 
and  boiling  is  unnecessary.  Stir  briskly  for  about  twenty  minutes 
after  the  last  of  the  oil  has  been  added.  (New  York  Experiment 
Station.) 

Soap  and  tobacco.  —  Dissolve  8  pounds  of  the  best  soft  soap  in  12 
gallons  of  rain-water,  and  when  cold  add  1  gallon  of  strong 
tobacco  liquor.     For  plant-lice. 

Soda  and  aloes.  —  Dissolve  2  pounds  of  washing-soda  and  1  ounce  of 
bitter  Barbadoes  aloes,  and  when  cold  add  one  gallon  of  water. 
Dip  the  plants  into  the  solution,  and  lay  them  on  their  sides 
for  a  short  time,  and  the  insects  will  drop  off.  Syringe  the  plants 
with  clean,  tepid  water,  and  return  to  the  house.     For  plant-lice. 

Sulfur.  —  Fumes  of  sulfur  are  destructive  to  insects,  but  should  be 
carefully  used,  or  plants  will  be  injured.  The  sulfur  should  be 
evaporated  over  an  oil  stove,  until  the  room  is  filled  with  the 
vapor.  The  sulfur  should  never  be  burned,  as  burning  sulfur 
kills  plants.     For  greenhouse  use.     See  p.  258. 

Sulfur  and  water.  —  To  3  gallons  of  weak  soap  suds  add  1  pound  of 
flowers  of  sulfur  and  stir  thoroughly.  Apply  as  a  spray.  For 
red  spider  and  mites. 

Tanglefoot  is  a  sticky  commercial  substance  much  used  for  banding 
trees.     See  under  Banding,  p.  286. 

Tar  is  sometimes  used  to  prevent  the  female  and  wingless  canker- 
worm  from  ascending  trees.  The  tar  should  be  placed  on  cotton, 
or  some  material  which  will  prevent  it  from  coming  in  contact 
with  the  bark,  and  a  band  of  the  preparation  is  then  placed 
around  the  trunk.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  tar  does 
not  injure  the  tree. 

Tarred  paper  may  be  rolled  loosely  about  trees  to  keep  away 
mice,  but  it  should  be  removed  before  warm  weather.  It  is 
sometimes  recommended  as  a  preventive  of  the  attacks  of  borers, 
but  it  very  often  injures  trees,  and  should  be  used,  if  at  all, 
with  great  caution. 

Tobacco.  —  1.  Stems,  placed  on   the  walks  and  under  the  benches  of 
greenhouses,  for  plant-lice.     Renew  it  every  month. 
2.  Tobacco- water,  used  with  whale-oil  soap. 


300  INSECTICIDAL   MATERIALS  AND   PRACTICES 

3.  Dust  iiiul  snuff.  Snuff  may  be  blown  lightly  on  plants,  as 
house-plants,  for  lice. 

4.  Fumes.  Burn  dampened  tobacco-stems.  See  Fumigation, 
p.  287. 

5.  Xicotyl.  Steep  tobacco-stems  in  water,  and  evaporate  the 
water. 

6.  Tea,  or  common  decoction.  Boil  the  stems  or  dust  thoroughly, 
and  strain.  Then  adtl  cold  w^ater  until  the  decoction  contains 
2  gallons  of  liquid  to  1  pound  of  tobacco. 

There  are  various  concentrated  commercial  preparations  of 
tobacco  which  have  recently  been  giving  good  results  against  plant- 
lice. 

White  arsenic.  —  See  Arsenicals,  p.  291. 

White  hellebore.  —  A  light  brown  powder  made  from  the  roots  of  the 
white  hellebore  plant  (  Veratrum  album),  one  of  the  lily  family. 
It  is  applied  both  dry  and  in  water.  In  the  dry  state,  it  is  usually 
applied  without  dilution,  although  the  addition  of  a  little  flour 
will  render  it  more  adhesive.  In  water,  4  ounces  of  the  poison  is 
mixed  with  2  or  3  gallons  ;  and  an  ounce  of  glue,  or  thin  flour 
paste,  is  sometimes  added  to  make  it  adhere.  A  decoction  is 
made  by  using  boiling  water  in  the  same  proportions.  Hellebore 
soon  loses  its  strength,  and  a  fresh  article  should  always  be  de- 
manded. It  is  much  less  poisonous  than  the  arsenicals,  and 
should  be  used  in  place  of  them  upon  ripening  fruit.  Used  for 
various  leaf-eating  insects,  particularly  for  the  currant-worm  and 
rose-slug. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Injurious  Insects,  with  Treatment 

By  C.  R.  Crosby 

Insects  are  of  two  kinds  as  respects  their  manner  of  taking  food,  — 
the  mandibulate  insects,  or  those  that  chew  or  bite  their  food,  as  larvaB 
{"  worms  ")  and  most  beetles  ;  and  those  that  suck  their  food,  as  tlie 
plant-lice  and  true  bugs.  The  former  class  is  dispatched  by  poisons, 
the  latter  by  caustic  applications,  as  kerosene  or  soap  preparations. 

General  or  Unclassified  Pests 

Angleworm  or  Earthworm.  —  The  common  angleworm  often  destroys 
greenhouse  plants  by  its  burrowing.  It  is  sometimes  annoying 
in  gardens  also. 

Treatment.  —  Lime-water  applied  to  the  soil. 

Ants.  —  See  Lawns,  p.  322. 

Aphides,  Plant-lice  or  Green-fly,  and  Bark-lice.  —  Minute  insects  of 
various  kinds,  feeding  upon  the  tender  parts  of  many  plants,  both 
indoors  and  out. 

Treatment.  —  Kerosene  emulsion.  Hot  water  (about  125°). 
Pyrethrum.  Fish-oil  soap.  Tobacco-water  or  extracts.  Alco- 
holic and  water  extracts  of  pyrethrum.  Hughes'  fir-tree  oil.  In 
the  greenhouse,  fumigation  with  tobacco  or  hydrocyanic  arid  gas. 
Knock  them  off  with  the  hose.  In  window  gardens,  dry  pyre- 
thrum or  snuff. 

Bag-worm  or  Basket-worm  (Thyridopteryx  ephernercEformis). —Liirvix 
working  in  singular  dependent  bags,  and  feeding  upon  many 
kinds  of  trees,  both  evergreen  and  deciduous.  In  winter  the  bags, 
empty  or  containing  eggs,  are  conspicuous,  hanging  from  the 
branches. 

Treatment.  —  Hand-picking.    Arsenicals. 
301 


302  IXJf'RIOrS   INSECTS,    WITH    TREATyfENT 

Blister-beetle  {Lytln,  two  or  three  species).  —  Soft-shelled,  long-necked 
and  slim  l)lack  or  gray  spry  beetles,   feeding   on    the    leaves   of 
many  trees  and  garden  plants. 
Tirnttnrnt.  —  Arsenirals.     Jarring. 

Brown-tail  moth  {Eiiprortis  chrij^orrhaoa) .  —  This  highly  destruc- 
tive ICuropean  insect  was  introduced  near  Boston  a  number  of 
years  ago,  and  i.now  rapidly  spreading  over  New  England.  The 
snow-white  moths,  with  a  large  tuft  of  brown  hairs  at  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen,  appear  in  July  and  deposit  eggs  on  the  leaves  in 
elongate  masses  covered  with  brown  hairs  from  the  body  of  the 
female.  The  caterpillars  become  only  partly  grown  the  first  season, 
and  hibernate  in  conspicuous  nests,  three  or  four  inches  long,  at 
the  tips  of  the  branches.  The  black-bodied  caterpillars,  clothed 
with  rather  long,  brownish,  stinging  hairs,  complete  their  growth 
the  next  spring,  feeding  ravenously  on  the  tender  foliage  and 
causing  great  damage  in  orchards,  parks,  and  forests. 

Treatment.  —  Cut  out  and  burn  all  winter  nests  before  the  buds 
start.  In  the  spring  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  as  reconnncnded 
for  the  gipsy-moth.  Prevent  the  ascent  of  caterpillars  from 
other  trees  by  banding  the  trunks  with  tanglefoot.  Keep  the 
bands  fresh  by  combing  the  surface  every  few  days. 

Cutworm.  —  Various  species  of  Agrotis  and  related  genera.  Soft 
brown  or  gray  worms,  of  various  kinds,  feeding  on  the  roots, 
crown,  or  even  the  tops  of  plants. 

TreattnerU.  —  Encircle  the  stem  of  the  plant  with  heavy  paper 
or  tin,  coating  the  top  with  tanglefoot.  Arsenicals  sprinkled 
upon  small  bunches  of  fresh  grass  or  clover,  which  are  scattered 
at  short  intervals  about  the  garden  towards  evening.  They  will 
often  collect  under  boards  or  blocks.  Arsenicals  mixed  with 
shorts  and  placed  about  the  plants.  Make  two  or  three  deep  holes 
by  the  side  of  the  plant  with  a  pointed  stick  ;  the  worms  will 
fall  in  and  cannot  escape.  Dig  them  out.  Plow  infested  land  in 
the  fall  to  give  birds  a  chance  to  find  the  worms. 

Cutworm,  Climbing.  — Several  species.  The  worms  climb  grape  vines 
and  small  trees  of  various  kinds  at  night  and  eat  out  the  buds. 

Preventive.  —  Band  of  cotton  batting  tied  about  the  tree  by  lower 
edge,  and  the  top  rolled  down  like  a  boot-leg.    Baits  (see  p.  293). 
Treatment.  —  Arsenicals.     Hellebore. 


VARIOUS  INSECTS  303 

Flea-beetle  (Phyllotreta  vittata;  Haltica  striolata,  etc.) —  Minnie,  dark- 
colored  beetles,  feeding  upon  many  plants,  as  turnip,  cabbaRo, 
radish,  mustard,  potato,  strawberry,  and  stocks.  They  jump 
upon  being  disturbed.  Closely  related  species  attack  various 
plants.  Very  destructive  to  plants  which  are  just  appearing 
above  the  surface. 

Treatment.  —  Bordeaux  mixture  applied  liberally  is  the  best 
remedy,  —  it  drives  them  away. 

Four-striped  Plant-bug  {Pwcilocapsus  lineatus).  —  A  bright  yellow, 
black-striped  bug  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  puncturing 
the  young  leaves  and  shoots  of  many  plants. 

Treatment.  —  Jarring  at  any  time  of  day  into  a  dish  of  dilute 
kerosene.  Kerosene  emulsion  (diluted  five  times)  when  the  bugs 
are  young,  in  their  nymphal  stage.  Cut  off  and  burn  the  tips 
of  the  growing  shoots  in  early  spring  to  destroy  the  eggs. 

Galls.  —  See  Nematode  Root-gall,  below. 

Gipsy-moth  {Porthetria  dispar).  —  Larva,  between  two  and  three  inches 
long  when  mature,  dark  brown  or  sooty  in  color,  with  two  rows  of 
red  spots  and  two  rows  of  blue  spots  along  the  back,  and  with  a 
dim  yellowish  stripe  between  them.  Devjurs  many  kinds  of  foli- 
age. Confined  to  New  England.  It  has  become  a  serious  pest. 
Treatment.  —  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the  cater- 
pillars hatch  in  the  spring.     Band  trees  with  tanglefoot. 

May-beetle  or  May-bug  (Laclmosterna  fusca).  —  A  large  and  familiar 

brown  beetle,  feeding  upon  the  leaves  of  many  kinds  of  trees. 

The  common  white  grub  is  the  larval  state.     It  often  does  great 

damage  to  sod  and  to  strawberries.     Sometimes  called  June-bug. 

Remedies.  —  See  under  Corn,  p  314. 

Mealy-bug  (Pseudococcus  citri  and  P.  longijilis).  —  A  white,  scale-like 
insect,  attacking  greenhouse  plants. 

Treatment.  —  Whale-oil  soap.  Carbolic  acid  and  soap.  Re- 
moving insects  with  brush  on  tender  plants.  House-plants  may 
be  washed  in  soapsuds.  The  best  procedure  in  greenhouses  is  to 
knock  them  off  with  the  hose.  A  small,  hard  stream  of  water 
upsets  their  domestic  affairs. 

Nematode  Root-gall  {Heterodera  radicicola).  —  A  disease  characterized 
by  the  knotting  and  contortion  of  the  roots  of  the  peach,  orange, 
and  many  other  plants.    The  knots  are  mostly  rather  soft  swell- 


304  ixjriiiocs  ixsects,  with  treatment 

iiiRS,  and  on  tlic  smaller  roots.  It  is  usually  most  destructive  on 
the  peach.  It  is  caused  by  a  nematode,  or  true  worm  (not  an 
insect).  (Uilf  States.  Attacks  greenhouse  plants  in  the  North. 
Preventive.  —  Plant  non-infested  plants  in  fresh  soil  ;  bud 
into  healthy  stocks.  Fertilize  highly,  particularly  with  potassic 
fertilizers.  Set  the  trees  8  or  10  inches  deep  in  high  and  dry 
soils.  Infested  small  trees  may  be  remedied,  in  part  at  least,  by 
transplanting  them  into  highly  manured  holes  which  have  been 
prepared  contiguous  to  them.  Does  not  live  in  regions  where 
the  ground  freezes  deeply.  If  it  is  feared  in  greenhouses,  see  that 
the  soil  has  been  thoroughly  frozen  before  it  is  used.  White- 
wash the    IxMU'hos. 

Red-spider  or  mite  {Tc(r(uiychus  bimaculatus).  —  A  small  mite  infest- 
ing many  plants,  both  in  the  greenhouse  and  out  of  doors. 
It  flourishes  in  dry  atmospheres,  and  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
leaves.  In  some  forms  it  is  reddish,  but  usually  light-colored  and 
two-spotted.     Common. 

Remedies.  —  Persistent  syringing  with  water  will  generally 
destroy  them,  if  the  spray  is  applied  to  the  under  surface.  Use 
much  force  and  little  water  to  avoid  drenching  the  beds.  Sulfur 
antl  water.    Dry  sulfur.    On  orchard  trees  flour  paste  may  be  used. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  peniiciosus) . — This  scale  is  nearly  cir- 
cular in  outline  and  about  the  size  of  a  pin-head.  When  abun- 
dant it  forms  a  crust  on  the  branches,  and  causes  small  red  spots 
on  the  fruit.  It  multiplies  with  marvelous  rapidity,  there  being 
three  or  four  broods  annually,  and  each  mother  scale  may  give 
birth  to  several  hundred  young.  The  young  are  born  alive,  and 
breeding  continues  until  late  autumn,  when  all  stages  are  killed 
by  the  cold  weather,  except  the  tiny,  half-grown,  black  scales,  many 
of  which  hibernate  safely. 
Spray  thoroughly  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  drop,  or  early  in  the 
spring  Ix'forc  growth  begins,  with  lime-sulfur  wash,  or  miscible  oil, 
1  gallon  in  10  gallons  of  watcT.  When  badly  infested,  make  two 
applications,  one  in  the  fall  and  another  in  the  spring.  In  case 
of  large,  old  trees,  25  per  cent  crude  oil  emulsion  sIkhiUI  be  ap- 
plied just  a.s  the  buds  are  swelling. 

Scale-insects.  —  Various  species  of  small  in.sects  inhabiting  the  young 
growth  of  trees,  and  sometimes  the  fruit,  in  one  stage  character- 


VARIOUS  INSECTS  305 

ized  by  a  stationary  scale-like  appearance.  Lime-sulfur  and 
miscible  oils  are  the  best  remedies.  Species  which  migrate  on  to 
the  young  growth  in  spring  can  be  readily  dispatched  at  that 
time  by  kerosene  emulsion. 

Snails.  —  These  animals  are  often  very  troublesome  in  greenhouses, 
eating  many  plants  voraciously. 

Preventives.  —  Trap  them  by  placing  pieces  of  turnip,  cab- 
bage, or  potatoes  about  the  house.  Scatter  bits  of  camphor-gum 
about  the  plants.  Strew  a  line  of  salt  along  the  edges  of  the  bed. 
Lime  dusted  about  the  plants  will  keep  them  away. 

White  ants  or  termites.  —  These  insects  often  infest  orchard  trees 
in  the  southern  states,  particularly  in  orchards  which  contain 
old   stumps    or   rubbish. 

Remedy.  —  The  soap-and-arsenites  wash  brushed  over  the  trunk 
and  branches  of  the  tree. 

Wire-worm  (various  species).  —  Slim  and  brown  larvae,  feeding  upon 
the  roots  of  various  plants.  They  are  the  larva)  of  the  click- 
beetle,  or  snapping-beetle. 

Remedy. — Arsenicals  sprinkled  upon  baits  of  fresh  clover  or 
other  material  which  is  placed  about  the  field  under  blocks  or 
boards.  Sweetened  corn-meal  dough  also  makes  a  good  bait. 
The  best  treatment  is  to  plow  infested  land  early  in  the  fall.  A 
system  of  short  rotations  of  crops  will  lessen  injury  from  wire- 
worms. 

Insects  classified  under  the  Plants  they  chiefly  Affect 

Apple.  Apple-bucculatrix  (Bucculatrix  pomifoliella) .  —  A  minute 
yellow  or  green  larva  feeding  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves, 
causing  the  lower  surface  to  turn  brown.  The  cocoons  are  white 
and  slender,  and  are  laid  side  by  side  upon  the  under  side  of  twigs, 
where  they  are  conspicuous  in  winter. 

Treatment.  —  Lime-sulfur   while   tree   is   dormant.     Arsenicals 
for  the  larvae  in  summer. 
Apple-curculio  (Anthonomus  quadrigibbus) .  —  A  soft,  white  grub, 
about  half  an  inch  long,  living  in  the  fruit. 

Treatment.  —Clean  cultivation.  Rake  the  small  apples  that 
drop  early  out  into  the  sun  where  they  will  dry  up.  See  Plum- 
cuRCULio,  p.  329. 

X 


3()0  ixjfiiiors  ixsECTs,  WITH  treatment 

Apple   Fij-ia-hketij-:   {(iraptudcni  foliacca).  —  Brassy,  green  beetle, 
one-fiftli  iiK'li  or  less  loii;;,  feeding  upon  leaves. 

TrealnwuL  —  Arseiiieals.  Linu'-sulfur  or  bordeaux  mixture 
as  a  repellent. 
Apple-.m.\(Jc;ot  or  Railuoad-wohm  {Rhiujoletis  pumojiella).  —  Mag- 
got ;  infests  harvest  and  fall  apples  mostly,  oceasionally  attacks 
winter  fruit.  It  tunnels  apples  through  and  through,  causing  the 
fruit  to  fall  to  the  earth. 

Treatment.  —  Pick  up  all  windfalls  every  two  or  three  days, 
and  either  feed  them  out  or  bury  them  deeply,  thus  killing  the 
maggots.  Pasture  to  hogs. 
Bud-moth  {Tmetocera  ocellana). — The  small  brown  caterpillars 
with  black  heads  devour  the  tender  leaves  and  flowers  of  the 
opening  buds  in  early  spring. 

Treatment.  —  Make  two  applications  of  either  1  pound  paris 
green  or  4  pounds  arsenate  of  lead  in  100  gallons  of  water  ;  the 
first  when  the  leaf-tips  appear,  and  the  second  just  before  the 
blossoms  open.  If  necessary,  spray  again  after  the  blossoms  fall. 
In  ca.ses  wiiere  lime-sulfur  is  used  just  before  the  buds  open  for 
scale  or  blister  mite,  arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds  to  100  gallons,  may 
be  added  and  will  help  to  control  the  bud-moth. 
Ca.se-beaiiers.  The  pistol-case-bearer  {Coleophora  malivorella) 
and  the  cigar-case-bearer  (C.  fletcherella) .  —  The  small  cater- 
pillars live  in  pistol  or  cigar-shaped  cases,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long,  that  they  carry  around  with  them.  The}'  appear  in 
sj)riiig  on  the  opening  buds  at  the  same  time  as  the  bud-moth, 
and  may  be  controlled  by  the  same  means. 
Canker-worm.  Spring  and  fall  {Paleacrita  vcrnata  and  Alsophila 
pometaria).  —  Larva  ;  a  "  measuring  worm,"  an  inch  long,  dark, 
and  variously  striped,  feeding  upon  the  leaves. 

Preventive.  —  Band    the     trees    with     tanglefoot    to     prevent 
the  wingless  females  from  climbing. 

Treatment.  —  Arsenicals,  thoroughly  applied  in  spray,  are 
very  effective.  See  Banding,  p.  286. 
CoDLiN-MoTH  (Carpocapsa  pomonella).  —  This  is  the  pinkish 
caterpill.ir  which  causes  a  large  proportion  of  wormy  apples. 
The  eggs  are  laid  by  a  small  moth  on  the  leaves  and  the  skin  of  the 
fruit.     Most  of  the  caterpillars  enter  the  apple  at  the  blossom  end. 


APPLE  INSECTS  307 

When  the  petals  fall,  the  calyx  is  open,  and  this  is  the  time  to 
spray.  The  calyx  soon  closes,  and  keeps  the  poison  inside  ready 
for  the  young  caterpillars'  first  meal.  After  the  calyx  lias  closed, 
it  is  too  late  to  spray  effectively.  The  caterpillars  become  full 
grown  in  July  and  August,  leave  the  fruit,  crawl  down  on  the 
trunk,  and  there  most  of  them  spin  cocoons  under  the  loose  bark. 
In  most  parts  of  the  countrj^  there  are  two  broods  annually. 

Treatment.  — When  the  majority  of  the  petals  have  fallen,  spray 
with  4  pounds  arsenate  of  lead  in  100  gallons  of  water,  using  a 
stiff  spray  to  force  it  into  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple.  Repeat 
the  application  three  weeks  later.  For  use  of  the  poison  with 
bordeaux  or  lime-sulfur,  see  Apple  Scab,  p.  264.  Paris  green  was 
formerly  used. 
Fall  Web-worm  {Hyphantria  cunea).  —  Hairy  larva,  about  an 
inch  long,  varying  from  gray  to  pale  yellow  or  bluish  black,  feed- 
ing upon  the  leaves  of  many  trees,  in  tents  or  webs. 

Treatment.  —  Destroy  by  burning  the  webs,  or  removing  them 
and  crushing  the  larvae.     Spray  with  arsenicals. 
Leaf  Blister  IMite  (Eriophijes  pyri).  —  The  presence  of  this  minute 
mite  is  indicated  by  small  irregular  brownish  blisters  on  the  leaves. 

Treatment.  —  Spray  in  late  fall  or  early  spring  with  lime-sulfur, 
or  miscible  oil.  For  dilution  of  commercial  lime-sulfur,  see  p.  296. 
Flat-headed  Borer  {Chrysobothris  femorata).  —  Larva  about  an 
inch  long,  flesh-colored,  the  second  segment  ("  head  ")  greatly 
enlarged  ;  boring  under  the  bark  and  sometimes  into  the  wood. 
They  are  readily  located  in  late  summer  or  fall  by  the  dead  and 
sunken  patches  of  bark. 

Preventive.  —  Soap  and  carbolic  acid  washes  applied  from 
May  to   July.     Keep   trees   vigorous. 

Treatmeyit.  —Dig  out  the  borers  in  early  summer  and  fall.     En- 
courage woodpeckers. 
Pear  Twig-beetle.  —  See  under  Pear,  p.  326. 
Plum-curculio  {Conotrachelns  nemiphar) .  — Beetle  ;    deforms  the 
fruit  by  its  characteristic  feeding  and  egg-laying  punctures.     The 
grubs  develop  in  the  fruit  and  cause  it  to  fall. 

Treatment.  —  Sprsiying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  as  for  codlin- 
moth,  whenever  it  can  be  applied  with  a  fungicide  so  as  not  to 
increase  expense,  will  help  to  control  the  trouble.     Thorough  su- 


308  ixjcRiors  insects,  wirii  treatment 

perficial  tillage  of  the  surface  soil  during  July  and  August  will  kill 
many  of  the  pupir,  and  is  recommended.  For  treatment  on 
l)luni,  see  under  Plum,  p.  329. 

Railroad-worm.  —  See  Apple-maggot,  p.  306. 

Root-louse,  "American  Blight."  — See  under  Woolly  Aphis, 
page  310. 

Rose-chafer.  — See  under  Grape,  p.  322.  At  the  first  appearance 
of  the  l)eetles  spray  plants  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  8  or 
10  pounds  to  100  gallons  of  water,  to  which  should  be  added  1  gal- 
lon of  molasses  (New  York  Experiment  Station). 

Round-headed  Borer  (Saperda  Candida).  —  A  yellowish  white 
larva,  about  one  inch  long  when  mature.  It  is  said  to  remain  in 
the  larval  state  three  years. 

Preventive.  —  Keep  the  beetles  from  laying  eggs  by  spraying 
the  trunks  several  times  during  the  spring  and  summer  with 
kerosene  emulsion  or  by  coating  them  with  an  alkaline  wash 
made  from  soap,  caustic  potash,  and  carbolic  acid.  Tarred  paper 
tree-protectors  well  tied  at  the  top,  or  wire  mosquito  netting 
protectors  closed  at  the  top  and  encircling  the  trunk  so  loosely 
that  the  beetles  cannot  reach  the  bark,  are  effective  in  preventing 
egg-laying.  Practice  clean  cultivation,  and  do  not  let  water 
sprouts  or  other  rank  vegetation  encircle  the  base  of  the  tree. 

Remedial.  —  Dig  out  the  borers  whenever  they  can  be  located 
by  discolored  bark  or  by  the  sawdust  thrown  out  of  the  burrow. 

San   Jose   Scale    {Aspidiotns  perniciosus).  —  Seep.  304. 

Leaf-crumpler  {Mineola  indigenella) .  —  Reddish  brown  caterpillars 
that  live  in  slender,  horn-shaped  cases  and  feed  on  the  tender 
leaves.  They  hibernate  as  partly  grown  larvae  and  attack  the 
opening  buds  the  following  spring.  They  usually  live  in  a  nest 
of  several  leaves  fastened  together  with  silk. 

Treatment. —  Gather  the  nests  and  burn  them.  Arsenicals 
when  the  buds  open. 

Oyster-shell  Scale  (Lepidosaphes  idmi).  —  This  is  an  elongate  scale 
(sometimes  called  bark-louse) ,  one-eighth  inch  in  length,  resembling 
an  oyster-shell  in  shape  and  often  incrusting  the  bark.  It  hiber- 
nates as  miiuite  white  eggs  under  the  old  scales.  The  eggs  hatch 
during  the  latter  part  of  May  or  in  June,  the  date  depending  on  the 
season.     After  they  hatch,  the  young  may  be  seen  as  tiny  whitish 


APPLE  INSECTS  309 

lice  crawling  about  on  the  bark.  When  these  young  appear, 
spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with  6  parts  of  water, 
or  whale-oil,  or  any  good  soap,  1  pound  in  4  or  5  gallons  of 
water.  Where  trees  are  regularly  sprayed  with  lime-sulfur  as 
for  the  San  Jose  scale  or  blister  mite,  the  oyster-shell  scale  is 
usually  controlled. 

Scurfy  Scale  {Chionaspis  f urfurus) .  — This  whitish,  pear-shaped 
scale,  about  one-eighth  inch  in  length,  often  incrusts  the  bark, 
giving  it  a  scurfy  appearance.  It  hibernates  as  purplish  eggs 
under  the  old  scales. 

Treatment.  —  Spray  as  recommended  for  Oyster-shell  Scale 
(p.  308). 

Tent-caterpillars  {Malacosoma  americana  and  M.  disstria).  — 
Larva,  nearly  two  inches  long,  spotted  and  striped  with  yellow, 
white,  and  black  ;  feeding  upon  the  leaves.  They  congregate  in 
tents  or  in  clusters  on  the  bark  at  night  and  in  cool  weather,  and 
forage  out  upon  the  branches  during  the  day. 

Treatment. — Arsenicals,  as  for  Codlin-moth  (p.  306).  Bum 
out  nests  with  torch,  or  cut  them  out  and  crush  the  larvae.  Pick 
off  egg  masses  from  twigs  during  winter  and  spring. 

Tussock-moth  {Hemerocampa  lencostigma) . — A  handsome,  red- 
headed, yellow  and  black  tufted  caterpillar,  about  an  inch  long, 
which  devours  the  leaves  and  sometimes  eats  into  the  fruit. 

Remedial.  —  Collect  the  frothy  egg-masses  in  fall  and  winter 
and  band  the  trees  to  prevent  a  reinfestation  by  migrating  cater- 
pillars. Spray  with  arsenicals  as  for  codlin-moth,  taking  care  to 
cover  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

Twig-borer  (Schistoceros  hamatus).  —  Beetle,  three-eighths  inch 
long,  cylindrical  and  dark  brown,  boring  into  twigs  of  apple,  pear, 
and  other  trees.     The  beetle  enters  just  above  a  bud. 

Treatment.  —  Burn  the  twigs.  The  early  stages  are  passed  in 
dying  wood  such  as  prunings,  diseased  canes,  and  in  upturned 
roots.  Burn  such  rubbish,  and  thus  destroy  their  breeding- 
places.     This  is  also  a  grape  pest. 

TwiG-PRUNER  (Elaphidion  villosum) .— Yellowish  white  larvae, 
about  a  half  inch  long,  boring  into  young  twigs,  causing  them  to 
die  and  break  off. 

Treatment.  —  Burn  the  twigs. 


310  ixjrRiors  ixsects,  with  treatment 

Woolly  Aphis  {Schizoneura  lanigera).  —  Hmii\\  reddish-brown  plant- 
lice  covered  with  a  conspicuous  mass  of  white,  waxy  fibers,  found 
on  the  branches,  sprouts,  trunks,  and  roots. 
Preventive.  —  Do  not  set  infested  trees. 

Treatment.  —  For  the  form  above  ground  drench  the  infested 
parts  with  15  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  ;   for  the  underground 
form  remove  tlie  eartli  beneath  the  tree  to  a  depth  of  3  inches, 
and  apply  10  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  liberally,  and  replace 
the  earth.    In  tlie  case  of  nursery  stock  the  emulsion  may  be  applied 
in  a  sliallow  furrow  close  to  the  row. 
Apricot.     Pkau  Twig-beetle.  —  See  under  Pe.\r,  p.  326. 
Pin-hole  Borer.  —  See  Bark-beetle  under  Peach,  p.  325. 
Plum-curculio.  —  See  under   Plum,  p.  329. 

Brown  Apricot-scale  {Eulecanium  armeniacum). —  A  soft  brown 
scale  infesting  the  under  side  of  the  smaller  branches. 

Treatment.  —  Spray  with  resin  and  fish-oil  compound,  taking 
care  to  hit  the  underside  of  the  twigs.  In  California  the  applica- 
tion should  be  made  in  January  and  February. 
Asparagus.  Common  Asparagus-beetle  (Crioceris  asparagi).  — 
Beetle,  less  than  one-fourtli  inch  in  length,  j'ellow,  red,  and  shin- 
ing black,  with  conspicuous  ornamentation,  feeding  upon  the 
tender  shoots.     Larva  feeds  upon  the  leaves  and  tender  bark. 

Treatment.  —  Freshly  slaked  lime  dusted  on  before  the  dew 
has  disappeared  in  the  morning.  Poultry.  Cut  down  all  plants 
in  early  spring  to  force  the  beetles  to  deposit  their  eggs  upon  the 
new  shoots,  which  are  then  cut  every  few  days  before  the  eggs 
hatch ;  or  leave  a  row  or  so  around  the  field  as  a  lure  for  the 
beetles  where  they  may  be  killed  with  arsenicals. 
The  T\velve-spotted  Asparagus-beetle  (Crioceris  12-punctata). 
—  Similar  to  the  last,  but  with  twelve  spots  on  the  wing- 
covers. 

Treatment.  —  Similar  to  that  used  above,  except  that  the  grubs 
cannot  be  destroyed  by  lime,  since  they  live  within  the  berry. 
Asparagus  Miner  {Agromyza  simplex).  —  A  maggot  mining  under 
the  skin  near  the  base  of  the  plant. 

Treatment.  —  Leave  a  few  volunteer  plants  as  a  trap  in  which 
the  fly  will  deposit  her  eggs.  Pull  and  burn  these  plants  in  late 
June  and  early  July. 


ASTER  —  CABBAGE  311 

Aster.  Aster- WORM  {Papaipema  nitela).  —  A  small  larva  boring  in 
the  stem  of  garden  asters  about  the  time  they  begin  to  flower, 
causing  the  heads  to  droop. 

All  infested  stocks  should  be  burned.  Destroy  by  burning  all 
rank  weeds,  such  as  ragweed  and  cocklebur,  before  September. 
Bean.  Bean- weevil  or  Bean-bug  {Bruchus  obtedus).  —  Closely 
resembles  the  pea-weevil,  which  see  for  description  and  remedies. 
Holding  over  the  seed  will  be  of  no  value  with  this  insect. 
Seed-corn  Maggot.  {Pegomya  fusciceps).  —  A  maggot  attacking 
germinating  seeds  and  roots  of  young  plants. 

Treatment.  —  Avoid  stable  manure  ;  practice  crop  rotation.  In 
the  garden  use  sand  moistened  with  kerosene  around  the  plants 
to  keep  the  flies  from  laying  the  eggs. 
Birch.  Bronze  Bircil-boreb.  {Agrilus  anxius) .  —  A  slender,  creamy 
white  grub,  three-fourths  inch  in  length  when  full  grown,  that 
burrows  under  the  bark  of  the  white  birch,  ultimately  killing  the 
tree.  The  eggs  are  laid  during  May  and  June  by  a  slender,  olive- 
bronze  beetle  about  one-half  inch  in  length. 

Treatment.  —  After   a   tree   has    become    thoroughly   infested, 
nothing  can  be  done  to  save  it.     As  the  first  indication  of  the 
presence  of  the  borer  is  usually  a  dying  of  the  topmost  branches, 
such  trees  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  if  infested  should 
be  cut  down  and  burned  before  May  1,  to  prevent  a  spread  of  the 
trouble  to  other  trees. 
Blackberry.  Cane-borer.  —  See  under  Raspberry,  p.  330. 
Root    Gall-fly.  —  See   under    Raspberry. 
Snowy  Cricket. —  See  under  Raspberry. 
Cabbage.    Cabbage-worm  or  Cabbage-butterfly  (Pontia  rapiE).-- 
The  green  caterpillars  hatch  from  eggs  laid  by  the  common  white 
butterfly.     There  are  several  broods  every  season. 

Treatment.  —  If  plants  are  not  heading,  spray  with  kerosene 
emulsion  or  with  paris  green  to  which  the  sticker  has  been  added. 
If  heading,  apply  hellebore. 
Flea-beetle,  —  See  Flea-beetle,  p.  303. 

Common  Cabbage-looper  {Autographa  brassic(E) .  —  A  pale  green 
caterpillar,  striped  with  lighter  lines.     Feeds  on  the  leaves. 
Treatment.  —  Arsenicals  applied  to  lower  surface  of  leaves. 
Cabbage  Aphis  (Aphis  brassicce). -These  smaU.  mealv  plant-lice 


312  ix.nHKjrs  lysKCTS,  with  treatment 

are  especitilly  troul^lesoinc  chirint;  cool,  dry  seasons,  when  their 
natural  enemies  are  less  active. 

Treatment.  —  Before  the  plants  begin  to  head,  spray  with  kero- 
sene emulsion  diluted  with  6  parts  of  water  or  whale-oil  soap, 
1  pound  in  0  gallons  of  water,  or  use  one  of  the  concentrated 
tobacco  extracts.  Destroy  all  cabbage  stalks  and  other  crucif- 
erous plants  in  the  fall.  Dip  infested  plants  in  soap  solution 
before  planting. 
Harlequin  C.\bbage-bug  {Murgantia  histrionica) .  —  Bug  about 
a  half-inch  long,  gaudily  colored  with  orange  dots  and  stripes  over 
a  blue-black  ground,  feeding  upon  cabbage  ;    two  to  six  broods. 

Treatment. —  Hand-picking.  Place  blocks  about  the  patch,  and 
the  bugs  will  collect  under  them.  In  the  fall  make  small  piles  of 
the  rubbish  in  the  patch,  and  burn  them  at  the  approach  of  winter. 
Practice  clean  culture.  Destroy  all  cabbage  stalks  and  other 
cruciferous  plants  in  fall.  Early  in  the  spring  plant  a  trap  crop  of 
mustard,  radish,  rape,  or  kale.  When  the  overwintering  bugs 
congregate  on  these  plants,  destroy  them  with  pure  kerosene  or 
by  hand. 
Maggot  (Pegomya  hrassiccB).  —  A  minute  white  maggot,  the  larva 
of  a  small  fly,  eating  into  the  crown  and  roots  of  young  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  radish,  and  turnip  plants. 

Treattnent.  —  Carbolic  acid  emulsion  diluted  with  30  parts 
of  water  applied  the  day  following  the  transplanting  of  the 
cabbage  plants,  and  repeated  once  a  week  for  several  appli- 
cations. Remove  a  little  earth  from  about  the  plants,  and 
spray  on  the  emulsion  forcibly.  It  has  also  been  found  practi- 
cable to  protect  the  plants  by  the  use  of  tightly  fitting  cards  cut 
from  tarred  paper. 

In  seed  beds  protect  the  plants  by  surrounding  the  bed  with 
boards  one  foot  wide  placed  on  edge,  across  which  a  tight  cover 
of  cheese-cloth  is  stretched. 
Carrot.     Pausley-worm.  —  See  under  Parsley,  p.  324. 

Carrot-beetle  {Ligyrus  gibhosus).  —  A  reddish  brown  beetle 
one-half  inch  or  more  long,  which  attacks  the  young  plants.  The 
larva  lives  in  the  ground,  where  it  feeds  on  humus. 

Preventive.  —  Crop  rotation  and  other  remedies  for  white  grub, 
which  see  under  Corn,  p.  314. 


CARROT — CHRYSANTHEMUM  313 

Cauliflower.  Cauliflower  or  Cabbage-worm.  —  See  under  Cabbage. 

Maggot.  —  See  under  Cabbage,  p.  311. 
Celery.     Carrot    Rust-fly    {Psila  roses).     Minute  whitish  yellow 
maggots  infesting  the  roots  and  stunting  the  plants. 

Preventive. —  Late  sowing  and  rotation  of  crops.     Celery  or 
carrots  should  not  follow  each  other. 
Celery  Caterpillar  {Papilio  polyxenes). — A  large  green  caterpillar, 
ringed  with   black  and  spotted  with  yellow,     which    feeds   on 
the  leaves. 

Treatment.  —  Hand-picking  as  soon  as  observed. 
Celery   Leaf-tyer     {Phlyccenia  ferrugalis).  —  A   greenish    cater- 
pillar, feeding  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

Treatment. —  Spray  with  arsenicals  while  the  larva?  are  still  young. 
Little  Negro-bug    (Corimeloena  pulicaria).  —  Glossy  black  bugs 
one-eighth  inch  in  length,  which  collect  in  clusters  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaflets  and  cause  the  plants  to  wilt. 

Treatment.  —  Kerosene  emulsion  or  tobacco  extract. 
Cherry.   Canker-worm.     See  under  Apple,  p.  306. 
Plum-curculio.     See   under   Plum,  p.  329. 
Rose  Beetle.     See  under  Apple  and  Grape,  pp.  308,  322. 
Slug  {Eriocampoides  limacina).  —  Larva,  one-half  inch  long,  black- 
ish and  slimy,  feeding  upon  the  leaves  ;  two  broods. 
Treatment.     Arsenicals,   hellebore,   tobacco  extract. 
Aphis   (Myzus    cerasi).     Blackish  plant   lice  infesting  the    leaves 
and  tips  of  new  growth. 

Treatment.     Spray  as  soon  as  the  first  lice  appear  with  whale- 
oil  soap  or  tobacco  extract. 
Chestnut.     Weevil  (Balaninus  proboscideus  and  B.  rectus).  —  A  grub 
working  in  chestnuts,  making  them  wormy. 
The  weevil  is  a  curculio-like  insect. 

Preventives.  —  Destroy    wild   trees    where    the    insects   breed. 
Plant  the  most  immune  varieties.     Gather  and  destroy  the  in- 
fested nuts  immediately  after  they  fall. 
Chrysanthemum.     Cabbage-looper.  —  See  under  I^ttuce,  p.  322. 
Chrysanthemum  Leaf-miner  (Phytomyza  chrysanthemi).— 

Remedy.  — Q^ray  leaves  with  ''Nicofume  Liquid,"  or  "Black 

Leaf  40,"  1  part  in  450  parts  water,  at  intervals  of  week  or  10  days. 

Clover.     Flower-midge    (Dasyneura  leguminicola,) .  —  An  orange-red 


314  lyji'Riors  insects,  with  treatment 

maggot  infesting  the  flower-buds,  where  they  consume  the  contents 
of  the  ovary. 

Preventives.  —  Cut  the  first  crop  for  hay  as  early  as  possible, 
thus  destroying  the  undeveloped  larvae  of  the  first  brood.     In  the 
latitude  of  Illinois  this  should  be  done  before  June  25. 
Seed-ch.\lcis  {Bruchophagus  funebris).  —  A  white  grub  found  in- 
side the  seed. 

Preventive.  —  Same  as  for  Flower-midge,  above.     Destroy  all 
volunteer  clover  plants. 
Seed-c.\terpillar    {Enarmonia    inter stidana) .  —  A    small    whitish 
or  orange  caterpillar  infesting  the  heads. 

Preventive.  —  Early  cutting  of  first  crop,  as  for  Flower-midge. 
Root-borer  (Hylastinus    obscuriLs).  —  Small  white  grub   burrow- 
ing in  the  roots. 

Preventive.  —  Plow  under  badly  infested  fields  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  cutting. 
Hay- WORM  (Hypsopygia  costalis).  —  A  brownish  caterpillar  three- 
fourths  inch  long,  infesting  stacked  or  stored  clover. 

Preventive.  —  Remove  old  clover  hay  before  putting  in  the  new. 
Place  stacks  on  log  or  rail  foundation,  and  salt  the  lower  layers. 
(Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 
Corn.     CoRX-ROOT  Aphis(  Aphis  maidiradicis) .  —  A  bluish  green  aphis 
infesting  the  roots. 

Preventives.  —  A  short  rotation  period  in  corn,  especially  in  dry 
years.  Deep  and  thorough  and  repeated  stirring  of  old  corn 
ground  in  fall  and  spring  as  a  preparation  for  corn-planting. 
Maintenance  and  increase  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
White  Grubs  (Lachnosterna  spp.).  —  The  large  white  curved  larvae 
of  the  common  June  beetle. 

Preventives.  —  Rotation  of  crops  ;  do  not  let  corn  follow  sod, 
but  let  a  crop  of  clover  or  clover  and  oats  intervene.  To  help 
clear  sod  land  of  grubs,  pasture  to  hogs  any  time  between  April 
and  October.  To  prevent  laying  of  eggs  in  corn-field,  keep  the 
ground  free  from  weeds  during  May  and  June.  Thorough  cul- 
tivation and  heavy  fertilization. 
Northern  Cor.v  Root- worm  (Diabrotica  longicornis) .  —  A  whitish 
grub  two-fifths  inch  long,  which  burrows  in  the  roots. 

Preventive.  —  Crop  rotation  ;   corn  should  not  follow  corn. 


CL  0  VER  —  CORN  315 

Wire-worms  {Elateridoe) .  —  YLd^vd,  yellowish,  or  reddish,  cylin- 
drical larvae  feeding  on  the  roots. 

Preventives.  —  Crop  rotation  ;  let  clover  intervene  between  sod 
and  corn,  planting  the  corn  late  the  second  or  third  year.  Early 
fall  plowing. 

Cut-worms  {Agrotis,  Hadena,  etc.).  —  Soft-bodied  caterpillars  eat- 
ing and  cutting  off  the  young  plants.     See  p.  302. 

Preventives.  —  Early  fail  plowing  of  grass  lands  intended  for 
corn  ;  pasturing  by  pigs  of  grass  or  clover  land  intended  for  corn  ; 
distributing  a  line  of  poisoned  bran  by  means  of  a  seed-drill.  To 
prevent  the  caterpillars  entering  from  a  neighboring  grass  field, 
destroy  them  with  a  line  of  poisoned  vegetable  bait. 

Sod  Web-worms  (Crambus  spp.).  —  Gray  or  brownish  caterpillars 
about  one-half  inch  long,  living  in  a  silk-lined  burrow  in  the  soil  at 
base  of  the  plant.     They  thrive  in  grass  land. 

Preventive.  —  Early  fall  plowing  of  grass  land  intended  for 
corn,  or  else  plow  as  late  as  possible  the  next  spring. 

Army- WORM.  (Leucania  unipuncta).  —  A  cut- worm-like  caterpillar, 
which  normally  feed  on  grass.  When  this  food  supply  is  exhausted, 
they  migrate  in  numbers  to  other  fields  and  attack  corn,  wheat, 
etc. 

Preventive.  —  To  stop  the  advance  of  the  "  army,"  plow  deep 
furrows  so  the  dirt  is  thrown  towards  the  colony  ;  in  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow  dig  post  holes  into  which  the  caterpillars  will  fall  and 
where  they  may  be  killed  with  kerosene. 

Chinch-bug  {Blissus  leucopterus) .  —  A  red  or  white  and  black  suck- 
ing bug,  three-twentieths  of  an  inch  long.  Attacks  wheat  and 
corn  in  great  numbers. 

Preventives.  —  Clean  farming  to  destroy  suitable  hibernating 
shelter.  Stop  the  migration  of  the  bugs  from  the  wheat-fields  into 
corn  by  maintaining  along  the  field  a  dust  strip  ten  feet  wide  in 
which  a  furrow  and  post-hole  barrier  has  been  constructed.  This 
may  be  supplemented  by  a  coal-tar  barrier. 

Grasshoppers  ( A  end  icte).  — Kill  them  with  poison  bran  mash  fla- 
vored with  lemons  or  oranges. 

Corn  Ear-worm  {Heliothis  armiger) .  — A  green  or  brownish  striped 
caterpillar  feeding  on  the  corn  beneath  the  husk.  Three  to  six 
generations  yearly. 


316  jxjcniors  ixsects,  with  treatment 

Preventives.  —  Plant  as  early  as  possible,  and  still  avoid  a  "  set 
back  "  to  the  crop. 

For  insects  infesting  stored  corn,  see  under  Fumigation,  p.  287. 

Cotton.  —  lioLLWoHM  (Ifcliothis  ob.soleta). — This  insect  is  also  known 

ji^   the   corn  earworni  and  tomato  fruit-worm.      The  caterpillars 

are  over  an  incii  in   length,  antl  vary  in  color  from  greenish  to 

dark  bro\Mi. 

Preventives.  —  Produce  an  early  crop  of  cotton  by  planting 
early  varieties,  heavy  fertilizing,  early  and  frequent  cultivation. 
Practice  fall  plowing,  to  destroy  as  many  hibernating  pupa?  as 
possible.  Use  corn  as  a  trap  crop.  Plant  it  in  strips  across  the 
fiekl  and  time  it  so  that  the  crop  will  be  in  silk  and  tassel  about 
August  1.  In  areas  infested  by  the  boll  weevil  follow  the  recom- 
mendations given  below.  (Piureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agric.) 
Mexican  Boll- weevil  {Anthonomus  grandis).  —  A  snout  beetle 
about  one-fourth  inch  in  length,  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  squares 
and  bolls,  producing  a  grub  which  eats  out  the  contents. 

Treatment  (U.  S.   Dept.  Agric.) :  — 

1.  Destroy  the  vast  majority  of  weevils  in  the  fall  by  up- 
rooting and  burning  the  plants.  This  is  the  all-important  step. 
It  results  in  the  death  of  millions  of  weevils.  It  insures  a  crop 
for  the  following  season. 

2.  Destroy  also  many  weevils  that  have  survived  the  pre- 
ceding operation  and  are  found  in  the  cotton-fields  and  along  the 
hedgerows,  fences,  and  buildings.  This  is  done  by  clearing  the 
places  referred  to  thoroughly. 

3.  As  far  as  possible,  locate  the  fields  in  situations  where 
damage  will  be  avoided.  This  cannot  be  done  in  all  cases,  but 
can  frequently  be  done  to  good  adv^antage. 

4.  Prepare  the  land  early  and  thoroughly  in  order  to  obtain  an 
early  crop.  This  means  fall  plowing  and  winter  working  of  the 
land. 

5.  Provide  wide  rows,  and  plenty  of  space  between  the  rows 
and  the  plants  in  the  drill,  for  the  assistance  of  the  natural  enemies 
of  the  weevil,  which  do  more  against  the  pest  than  the  farmer  can 
do  himself  l)y  any  known  means.  Check-rowing,  wherever  prac- 
ticable, is  an  excellent  i)ractice. 


COTTON  —  CRANBERRY  317 

6.  Insure  an  early  crop  by  early  planting  of  early-maturing 
i^arieties,  and  by  fertilizing  where  necessary. 

7.  Continue  the  procuring  of  an  early  crop  by  early  chopping 
to  a  stand  and  early  and  frequent  cultivation.  Do  not  lose  the  fruit 
the  plants  have  set  by  cultivation  too  deep  or  too  close  to  the  rows. 

8.  Where  the  labor  is  sufficient,  pick  the  first  appearing  weevils 
and  the  first  infested  squares.  Do  not  destroy  the  squares,  but 
place  them  in  screened  cages.  By  this  means  the  escape  of  the 
weevils  will  be  prevented,  while  the  parasites  will  be  able  to  escape 
to  continue  their  assistance  on  the  side  of  the  farmer. 

9.  Use  a  crossbar  of  iron  or  wood,  or  some  similar  device,  to 
cause  the  infested  squares  to  fall  early  to  the  ground,  so  that  they 
will  be  exposed  to  the  important  effects  of  heat  and  parasites. 

10.  Do  not  poison   for  the   leaf-worm  unless  its   work  begins 
at  an  abnormally  early  date  in  the  summer. 
Cranberry.     Fruit-worm  {Mineola  z^accmu).  —Small  caterpillar  work- 
ing in  the  fruits,  eating  out  the  insides. 

Preventive.  —  For  bogs  with  abundant  water,  reflow  for 
ten  days  immediately  after  picking.  Let  the  foliage  ripen,  and 
then  turn  on  water  for  winter.  Draw  off  water  early  in  April, 
and  every  third  or  fourth  year  hold  it  on  until  the  middle  of  May. 
For  dry  bogs  spray  three  times  with  arsenate  of  lead  during 
July.  Bury  all  screenings. 
Fire-worm,  Cranberry-worm,  or  Black-headed  Cranberry- 
worm  (Eudemis  vacciniana).  —  Small  larva,  green,  black-headed, 
feeding  upon  the  shoots  and  young  leaves,  drawing  them  together 
by  silken  threads  ;   two  broods. 

Treatment.  —  Flooding  for  two  or  three  days  when  the  worms 
come  down  to  pupate.     Arsenicals. 
Yellow-headed  Cranberry- worm  {Acleris  minuta).  —  Stout,  yel- 
lowish-green, small  caterpillar,  with  a  yellow  head,  webbing  up 
the  leaves  as  it  works. 

Treatment.  —  Hold  the  water  late  on  the  bog  in  spring  to  pre- 
vent egg-laying.     Arsenicals  from  the  middle  of  May  till  July  1. 
Cranberry-gird LER  {Crambns  hortuellus).  —  Small  caterpillars  feed- 
ing on  the  stems  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  sand. 

Preventive.  —  Reflow  just  after  picking,  for  a  week  or  ten  days, 
or  reflow  for  a  day  or  two  about  June  10. 


318  IXJT'RIOrS  INSECTS,    WITH   TREATMENT 

False  Army-worm  {Calocampa  nupera).  —  Green  to  blackish 
caterpillars  devouring  the  leaves  and  buds. 

Treatment.  —  Reflow  for  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours 
soon  after  the  middle  of  May.  It  may  be  necessary  to  reflow 
a  second  time.  Destroy  all  caterpillars  washed  ashore  while  the 
water  is  on. 

In  dry  bogs,  spray  early  in  May  with  arsenate  of  lead. 
Cucumber.     Pickle-worm  (Diaphania  nitidalis).  —  Larva,  about  an 
inch  long,  yellowish  white,  tinged  with  green,  boring  into  cucum- 
bers;   two  broods. 

Preventives.  —  Clean  farming,  fall  plowing,  and  rotation  of  crops. 

Remedies.  —  Kill  the  caterpillars  before  they  enter  the  fruit 
by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  about  the  time  the  buds  begin 
to  form,  and  repeat  in  two  weeks. 
Stem-borer.  —  See  under  Squash  (p.  331),  where  it  is  described  as 

root-borer. 
Melon-worm.  —  See  under  Melon,  p.  322. 

Spotted  Cucumber-beetle  {Diabrotica  12-punctata).  —  Beetle, 
yellowish  and  black  spotted,  about  one-fourth  inch  long,  feeding 
upon  the  leaves  and  fruit.  Sometimes  attacks  fruit-trees,  and  the 
larva  may  injure  roots  of  corn. 

Treatment.  —  Same  as  for  Striped  Cucumber-beetle,  below. 
Striped  Cucumber-beetle  (Diabrotica  vittata) .  —  Beetle,  one-fourth 
inch  long,  yellow  with  black  stripes,  feeding  on  leaves.     Larva  one- 
eighth  inch  long  and  size  of  a  pin,  feeding  on  roots;  two  broods. 

Preventive.  — Cheap  boxes  covered  with  thin  muslin  or  screens 
of  mosquito-netting,   placed   over  young  plants. 

Remedies.  —  Arsenicals  in  flour.  Arsenate  of  lead.  Ashes, 
lime,  plaster,  or  fine  road  dust  sprinkled  on  the  plants  every  two 
or  three  days  when  they  are  wet.  Air-slaked  lime.  Plaster  and 
kerosene.  Tobacco  powder,  applied  liberally.  Apply  remedies 
when  dew  is  on,  and  see  that  it  strikes  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
Currant.  Borer  {Scsia  tipidiformis).  —  A  whitish  larva,  boring  in 
the  canes  of  currants,  and  sometimes  of  gooseberries.  The  larva 
remains  in  the  cane  over  winter. 

Treatment.  —  In  fall  and  early  spring  cut  and  burn  all  affected 
canes.  These  canes  are  distinguished  before  cutting  by  lack 
of  vigor  and  by  limberness. 


CURRANT  — ELM  319 

Currant-worm,  or  Currant  and  Gooseberry  Sawfly  (A^ema/j<s 
ventricosus) .  —  Larva,  about  three-fourths  inch  long,  yellow- 
green,  feeding  on  leaves  of  red  and  white  varieties;  two  to  four 
broods. 

Treatment.  —  White  hellebore,  applied  early.  Arsenicals  for 
the  early  brood.  Treatment  should  begin  while  the  larvir  arc 
on  the  lowermost  leaves  of  the  bushes.  Before  the  leaves  arc 
fully  grown,  the  holes  made  by  the  worms  may  be  seen.  The 
second  brood  is  best  destroyed  by  killing  the  first  brood. 
Currant  Measuring  or  Span-worm  {Cr/matophora  ribearia). — 
Larva  somewhat  over  an  inch  long,  with  stripes  and  dotted  with 
yellow  or  black,  feeding  upon  the  leaves. 

Treatment.  —  Hellebore,   applied    stronger    than  for  currant- 
worm.     Arsenicals.     Hand-picking. 
Four-striped  Plant-bug.  —  See  p.  303. 

Green  Leaf-hopper  (Empoa  albopicta).  —  Small  insect  working 
upon  the  under  surface  of  currant  and  gooseberry  leaves.  Also 
upon  the  apple. 

Remedies.  —  Pyrethrum.     Kerosene    emulsion.     Tobacco-dust. 
Tobacco  extracts. 
Dahlia.     Four-striped  Plant-bug.  —  See  p.  303. 

Cabbage  Looper.  —  See  under  Cabbage,  p.  311. 
Egg-plant.     Potato-beetle.  —  See  under  Potato,  p.  329. 
Elm.     Canker-worm.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  306. 
Elm  Leaf-beetle  (Galerucellaluteola).  —  A  small  beetle,  imported 
from  Europe,  which  causes  great  devastation  in  some  of  the  eastern 
states  by  eating  the  green  matter  from  elm  leaves,  causing  the 
tree  to  appear  as  if  scorched. 

Remedy.  —  Arsenate  of  lead  (li  pounds  to  25  gallons). 
Elm  Sawfly  Leaf-miner  {Kaliosysphinga  ulmi).  —  k  greenish  white 
larva  feeding  between  the  two  layers  of  the  leaf,  causing  large 
blotches ;  when  abundant,  the  leaf  dies  and  falls.     They  some- 
times kill  the  trees  in  two  or  three  years. 

Treatment  — ^Yi^n  the  blotches  are  about  one-third  to  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter,  spray  with  "Black-leaf  40,"  tobacco  extract, 
1  gallon  in  800  gallons  of  water,  adding  4  pounds  of  w^hale-oil 
soap  to  each  100  gallons. 
Willow- WORM.  —  See  under  Willow. 


320  ixjrnioi's  ixsects,  with  treatment 

Endive.     ('ABHAfjK-LooPEii.     See  under  Cabbage,  p.  311. 
Gooseberry.     Currant-borer.  —  See  under  Currant,  p.  318. 

(  ruKANT  Measuring  or  Span-worm.  —  See  under  Currant. 

Four   Striped    Plant-bug.  —  See  p.  303. 

Gooseberrv  or  Currant-worm. —  See  under  Currant. 

Gooseberry  Fruit-worm  {Dakruma  convolutella) .  —  Larva,  about 
tliroe-fourths  inch  long,  greenish  or  yellowish,  feeding  in  the  berrj^ 
causing  it  to  ripen  prematurely. 

Treatment.  —  Destroy  affected  berries.  Clean  cultivation. 
Poultry. 

Green   Leaf-hopper.  —  See   under   Currant. 
Grape.  Grapeberry-worm  (Polychrosis  viteana).  —  Larva,  about  one- 
fourth  inch  long,  feeding  in  the  berry,  often  securing  three  or  four 
together  by  a  web  ;    two  broods. 

Remedy.  —  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  before  blossoms  open. 
Repeat  after  blooming  and  again  in  early  July.  Destroy  wormy 
berries  in  August. 

Grape-curculio  {Craponius  incequalis).  —  Larva,  small,  white, 
with  a  brownish  head.  Infests  the  grape  in  June  and  July, 
causing  a  little  black  hole  in  the  skin  and  a  discoloration  of 
the  berry  immediately  around  it.  The  adult  is  a  grayish  brown 
snout-beetle,  about  one-tenth  inch  long. 

Treatment.  —  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  while  the  beetles 
are  feeding  on  the  leaves.  The  beetle  may  be  jarred  dowTi  on 
sheets,  as  with  the  plum-curculio.     Bagging  the  clusters. 

Grape-slug  or  Saw-fly  {Selandria  vitis).  —  Larva  about  one-half 
inch  long,  yellowish  green  with  black  points,  feeding  upon  the 
leaves  ;  two  broods. 

Remedies.  —  Arsenicals.     Hellebore. 

Grape  Root-worm  {Fidia  viticida).  —  The  small  white  grubs 
feed  upon  the  roots,  often  killing  the  vines  in  a  few  years.  The 
adults  are  small  grayish-brown  l)eetles  that  eat  peculiar  chain-like 
holes  in  the  leaves  during  July  and  August.  Cultivate  thoroughly 
in  June,  especially  close  around  the  vines  to  kill  the  pupae  in  the 
soil.  At  the  first  appearance  of  the  beetles  spray  the  plants  with 
arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  8  or  10  pounds  to  100  gallons  of 
water,  to  which  shoukl  be  added  1  gallon  of  molasses  (Geneva 
Experiment  Station). 


GRAPE  INSECTS  ^-^ 

Grape-vine  Flea-beetle  {Graptodera  chalybea).  —  Beetle,  of  a 
blue  metallic  color,  about  one-fourth  inch  long,  feeding  upon  the 
buds  and  tender  shoots  in  early  spring. 

Treatment.  —  Arsenicals  to  kill  the  grubs  on  leaves  during  May 
and  June.     The  beetle  can  be  caught  by  jarring  on  bright  days. 
Grape-vine   Rcot-borer   {Memythrus  polistiformis).  —  Larva,  one 
and  one-half  inch  or  less  long,  working  in  the  roots. 

Preventive.  —  Thorough  cultivation  during  June  and  July. 

Treatment.  —  Dig  out  the  borers. 

Grape-vine  Sphinx   {Ampelophaga  myron).  —  A  large  larva,  two 

inches  long  when  mature,  green  with  yellow  spots  and  stripes, 

bearing   a   horn    at   the   posterior   extremity,  feeding  upon  the 

leaves,  and  nipping  off  the  young  clusters  of  grapes  ;   two  broods. 

Treatment.  —  Hand-picking.     Arsenicals   early   in   the   season. 

There  are  other  large  sphinx  caterpillars  which  feed  upon  the 
foliage  of  the  vine  and  which  are  readily  kept  in  check  by  hand- 
picking  and  spraying. 
Phylloxera    {Phylloxera    vastatrix).  —  A    minute    insect    preying 
upon  the  roots,  and  in  one  form  causing  galls  upon  the  leaves. 

Preventive.  —  As  a  rule  this  insect  is  not  destructive  to  American 
species  of  vines.  Grafting  upon  resistant  stocks  is  the  most  re- 
liable method  of  dealing  with  the  insect  yet  known.  This  pre- 
caution is  taken  to  a  large  extent  in  European  countries,  as  the 
European  vine  is  particularly  subject  to  attack. 

Remedies.  —  There  is  no  reliable  and  widely  practicable  remedy 
known.  Burn  afTected  leaves.  Bisulphide  of  carbon  poured 
in  holes  in  the  ground,  which  are  quickly  filled,  is  very  effective. 
Carbolic  acid  and  water  used  in  the  same  way  is  also  recommended. 
Flood  the  vineyard. 
Snowy  Cricket.  —  See  under  Raspberry,  p.  331. 
Leaf-hopper  {Typhlocijha  comes) .  — These  small  yellowish  leaf- 
hoppers,  erroneously  called  "  thrips,"  suck  the  sap  from  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  turn  brown  and  dry  up. 

Treatment.  —  Spray  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  very  thoroughly 
with  whale-oil  soap,  1  pound  in  10  gallons  of  water,  or  with 
"  Black-leaf"  tobacco  extract,  1  gallon  to  100  gallons  of  water ;  or 
1  gallon  "  Black-leaf  40  "  in  1000  gallons  of  water  about  July  1, 
to  kill  the  young  leaf-hoppers.     When  using  tobacco  extract  add 


322  ixjrRiors  insects,  with  treatment 

al)out  2  poimds  whale-oil  soap  to  each  50  gallons  to  make  it  spread 
and  stick  Ix'tter.     Repeat  the  application  in  a  week  or  ten  days. 
In   iiouses,  tolnicco-snioke,   pyrethruni   i)oured   upon   coals   held 
under  the  vines,  syringing  with  tobacco-water  or  soap  suds. 
Grasshoppers.  —  See  under  Corn,  p.  314. 

RosE-cn.\FER  {Macrodadylus  subspinosus) .  —  The  ungainly,  long- 
legged,  grayish  beetles  occur  in  sandy  regions,  and  often  swarm 
into  vineyards  and  destroy  the  blossoms  and  foliage. 

Treatment.  —  At  the  first  appearance  of  the  beetles  spray  with 
arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  8  or  10  pounds  to  100  gallons  of 
water,  to  which  should  be  added  1  gallon  of  molasses. 
Hollyhock.    Hug  (Orthotylus  delicalus).  —  A  small  green  bug,  attacking 
the  hollyhock  with  great  damage. 

Treatment.  —  Kerosene  emulsion.     Tobacco  extracts. 
House-plants.     See  Aphides,   Mealy-bug,   Mites,  and  Red-spider, 

PI).  301-304. 
Lawns.     Ants   {Formica    sp.).  —  Insects    burrowing    in  the    ground, 
forming  ''  ant  hills." 

Remedy.  —  A  tablespoonful  of  bisulfid  of  carbon  poured  into 
holes  six  inches  deep  and  a  foot  apart,  the  holes  being  immediately 
filled  up. 
Lettuce.     Aphis   or   Green-fly.  —  A   plant-louse   on  forced  lettuce. 
Preventive.  —  Tobacco-dust  applied  on  the  soil  and  plants  as 
soon  as  the  aphis  makes  its  appearance,  or  even  before.     Renew 
every  two  or  three  weeks  if  necessary.     Fumigating  with  tobacco 
is  the  surest  remedy.     See  Fumigation,  p.  288. 
Cabbage-looper  (Autographa   brassiae).  —  Larva,  somewhat  over 
an  inch  long,  pale  green,  with  stripes  of  a  lighter  color,  feeding 
on  leaves  of  many  plants,  as  cabbage,  celery,  and  endive. 

Remedies.  —  Pyrethrum  diluted  with  not  more  than  three  times 
its  bulk  of  flour;  Kerosene  emulsion.  Hot  water. 
Melon.  Melon-worm  {Diaphania  hyalinata) .  —  Larva,  some  over  an 
inch  long,  yellowish  green  and  slightly  hairy,  feeding  on  melon- 
leaves,  and  eating  holes  into  melons,  cucumbers,  and  squashes  ; 
two  or  more  broods. 

Remedies.  —  Hellebore.     Arsenicals  early  in  the  season. 
Spotted    Cucumber-beetle.  —  See    under    Cucumber,  p.  318. 
Squash-vine  Root-borer.  —  See  under  Squash,  p.  331. 


MUSHROOM — ORANGE  323 

Mushroom.     Mushroom-fly.  —  The    maggot     bores    through    the 
stems  of  the  mushrooms  before  they  are  full  grown. 

Preventive.  —  Keep  the  beds  cool  so  that  the  fly  cannot  develop. 
When  the  fly  is  present,  growing  mushrooms  in  warm  weather  is 
usuallj^  abandonded. 
Onion.     Maggot    {Pegomya    cepetorum).  —  Much    hke  the  Cabb.\ge 
Maggot,  which  see  (p.  312). 

Remedies.  —  Carbolic  acid  emulsion.     Bisulfid  of  carbon. 
Thrips  (Thrips  tabaci).  —  Minute  elongate  yellowish  insects  that 
cause  a  wilting  and  dying  of  the  tops. 

Treatment.  — Clean  culture,  kerosene  emulsion,  tobacco  extracts. 

Orange    and    Lemon.     Purple    Scale    (Lepidosaphes    beckii).  —  An 

elongate  brownish  purple  scale  resembling  an  oyster-shell  in  shape. 

Treatment.  —  Fumigation,  using  heavy  dosage. 

Red-scai£    {Aspidiotus   aurantii).  —  A    nearly  circular  reddish  or 

yellowish  scale. 

Treatment.  —  Fumigation.       Distillate. 
Black-scale  {Saissetia  olece).  —  A   large  soft-bodied    dark   brown 
or  nearly  black  scale. 

Treatment.  —  Fumigation.     Distillate. 
Mealy-bug    (Pseudococcus    citri). — A    mealy    white    soft-bodied 
insect  nearly  one-fourth  inch  long,  occurring  in  masses  in  the 
angles  of  the  branches,  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  around  the  stem 
of  the  fruit. 

Treatment.  —  Fumigation.     Destruction  of    all  rubbish  under 
the  trees. 
Red-spider  (Tetranychus  sexmaculatus) .  — Minute  greenish  yellow 
mites  found  on  the  leaves.     See  p.  304. 

Treatment.  —  Dry  sulfur,  or  sulfur  and  water  used  as  a  spray. 
White-fly  {Aleyrodes  citri  and  A.  nubifera).  —  The  immature  stages 
are  found  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and  are  scale-like  in  form. 
The  adults  are  minute  white-winged  flies. 

Trea^men^.  —  Fumigation.     Fungous  diseases  (p.  290). 
Rust-mite  (Phytoptus  oleivorns).  —  A  minute  mite,  causing  the  rust 
on  oranges  and  lemons. 

Treatment.  —  Sulfur,  dry  or  as  a  spray. 
Thrips    {Eidhrips  citri).  — A  minute,   active,   yellow   insect   that 
scars  the  fruit  and  curls  and  distorts  the  leaves. 


324  IXJf'RIOf'S    INSECTS,    WITH    TREATMENT 

TreatnietU.  —  Make  four  applications  of  lime-sulfur  (SS"^  Beau 
m6),  1  gallon  in  75  gallons  of   water,  adding   "  Black-leaf  40  " 
tobacco  extract  at  the  rate  of   1  part  in  1800  parts   of  the  di- 
lute lime-sulfur,  as  follows :  — 
First.  —  Just    after    most    of    the    petals    have    fallen    from   the 

blossoms. 
Second.  —  Ten  or  fourteen  days  after  the  first. 
Third.  —  From  three  to  four  weeks  after  the  second. 
Fourth.  —  In  August  or  September,    to  protect   later  growths  of 
foliage.     (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology.) 
Parsley.     Parsley- worm   {Papilio    asterias).  —  Larva,  inch   and    a 
half  long,  light  yellow  or  greenish  yellow  with  lines  and  spots  ; 
feeding    upon  leaves  of  parsley,   celery,  carrot,  etc.     When  the 
worm  is  disturl^cd  it  ejects  two  yellow  horns,  with  an  offensive  odor, 
from  the  anterior  end. 

Remedies.  —  Hand-picking.     Poultry  are  said  to  eat  them  some- 
times.    Upon  parsnip,  arsenicals. 
Parsnip.     Parsley-worm.  —  See  under  Parsley,  above. 

Par.snip  Web- worm  {Depressaria  heradiana).  —  Larva,  about  a  half 
inch  long,  feeding  in  the  flower  cluster  and  causing  it  to  become 
contorted. 

Treatment.  —  Arsenicals,  applied  as  soon  as  the  j'oung  worms 
appear,  and  before  the  cluster  becomes  distorted.  Burn  the  dis- 
torted umbels.  Destroy  all  wild  carrots. 
Pea.  Pe.\-\\t:evil  or  Pe.\-bug  {Bruchus  pisi).  —  A  small  brown-black 
beetle,  living  in  peas  over  winter.  The  beetle  escapes  in  fall  and 
spring,  and  lays  its  eggs  in  young  pea-pods,  and  the  grubs  live  in 
the  gnjwing  peas. 

Treatment  —  Hold  over  infested  seed  for  one  year  before  plant- 
ing. Late  planting  in  some  localities.  Fumigation  with  carbon 
bisulfid. 
Pea  Aphls  (Macrosiphum  pisi).  —  A  rather  large  green  plant-louse, 
often  attacking  peas  in  great  numbers  and  causing  enormous 
losses. 

Treatment.  —  Rotation  of  crops.  Early  planting.  When  peas 
are  grown  in  rows,  the  brush-and-cultivator  uK^thod  may  be  used. 
The  plant-lice  are  brushed  from  the  plants  with  pine  boughs,  and 
a  cultivator  follows  stirring  the  soil.     This  operation  should  be 


PEACH  INSECTS  325 

performed  while  the  sun  is  hot  and  the  ground  dry.  Most  of  the 
hce  will  be  killed  before  they  can  crawl  back  to  the  plants. 
Repeat  every  three  to  seven  days. 
Peach.  Black  Aphis  {Aphis  persicoB-niger) .  ~  A  small  black  or 
brown  plant-louse  which  attacks  the  tops  and  roots  of  peach-trees. 
When  upon  the  roots  it  is  a  very  serious  enemy,  stunting  the 
tree  and  perhaps  killing  it.     Thrives  in  sandy  lands. 

Treatme7it.  —  Kerosene  emulsion.     Tobacco  decoction  and  ex- 
tracts. 
Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  308. 
Flat-headed  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple. 

Katydid.  —  This  insect  is  often  troublesome  to  the  peach  in  the 
southern  states  in  the  early  spring,  eating  the  leaves  and  girdling 
young   stems. 

Remedy.  —  Poisoned  baits  placed  about  the  tree. 
Green  Peach-louse  or  Aphis  (Mtjzus  persicoB).  —  A   small  insect 
feeding  upon  the  young  leaves,  causing  them  to  curl  and  die. 

Treatment.  —  Lime-sulfur,  kerosene   emulsion,  or  tobacco   de- 
coction.    After  the  buds  open,  either  of  the  last  two. 
Peach-tree  Borer  {Sanninoidea  exitiosa) .  —  A  whitish  larva,  about 
three-fourths  inch  long  when  mature,  boring  into  the  crown  and 
upper  roots  of  the  peach,  causing  gum  to  exude. 

Remedies.  —  Dig  out  the  borers  in  June  and  mound  up  the 
trees.  At  the  same  time  apply  gas-tar  or  coal-tar  to  the  trunk 
from  the  roots  up  to  a  foot  or  more  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 
Peach  Twig-moth  (Anarsia  lineatella).  —  The  larva  of  a  moth,  a 
fourth  inch  long,  boring  in  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  later  in 
the  season  attacking  the  fruit.     Several  broods. 

Remedy.  —  Spray  with  lime-sulfur  just  after  the  buds  swell. 
Spray  trunks  and  larger  branches  with  kerosene  or  distillate  emul- 
sion in  late  spring  to  kill  first  brood  pupae  in  the  curls  of  bark. 
Peach-tree  Bark-beetle  {Phlceotrihus  liminaris).  —  A  dark 
brown  beetle  one-tenth  inch  in  length  burrowing  under  the  bark. 
Treatment.  —  Burn  all  brush  and  worthless  trees  as  soon  as 
the  infestation  is  observed.  Keep  the  trees  in  healthy  condition 
by  thorough  cultivation  and  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

Apply  a  thick  whitewash  to  the  trunk  and  branches  three  times 


326  INJURIOUS  INSECTS,    WITH   TREATMENT 

a  season  ;    first,  the  last  week  of  March  ;    second,  second  week 
in  July  ;    third,  first  week  in  October. 

Fruit-tree  Black-beetle  {Scolytus  rugulosus).  —  A  small  beetle 
similar  to  the  last. 

Treatment.  —  Same  as  preceding. 

Flvm-cvrculio  {Conotrachelus  Tie7iuphar).  —  In  Missouri  and  Geor- 
gia this  insect  has  been  successfully  controlled  on  peach  by  spray- 
ing with  arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds  to  100  gallons  of  self-boiled 
lime-sulfur.  Spray,  first  when  the  "husks"  drop  from  the  fruit; 
second,  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later.  It  is  unsafe  to  spray 
peaches  more  than  twice  with  arsenate  of  lead  (p.  329) . 

Rose-beetle.  —  See  under  Grape  and  Apple,  pp.  308,  322. 

Red-legged  Flea-beetle  ( Haltica  rufipes) .  —  A  flea-beetle  feeding 
on  the  leaves  of  peach  trees,  often  in  great  numbers. 

Remedies.  —  The  insects  fall  at  once  upon  being  jarred,  and 
sheets  saturated  with  kerosene  may  be  used  upon  which  to  catch 
them.     Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  in  self-boiled  lime-sulfur. 
Pear.    Apple-tree  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  306. 

Bud-moth.  —  See  under  Apple. 

CoDLiN-MOTH.  —  See  under  Apple. 

Fl.\t-headed  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple. 

Midge  {Diplosis  pyrivora).  —  A  minute  mosquito-like  fly;  lays 
eggs  in  flower-buds  when  they  begin  to  show  white.  These  hatch 
into  minute  grubs  which  distort  and  discolor  the  fruit.  New  York 
and  eastward.  Prefers  the  Lawrence.  Introduced  in  1877  from 
France. 

Remedies.  —  Destroy  the  infested  pears.     Cultivate  and  plow 
in  late  summer  and  fall  to  destroy  the  pupse  then  in  the  ground. 

Pear-leaf  Blister  {Eriophyes  pyri).  —  A  minute  mite  which  causes 
black  blisters  to  appear  upon  the  leaves.  The  mites  collect  under 
the  bud-scales  in  winter. 

Remedy.  —  Lime-sulfur  or  miscible  oil  as  a  dormant  spray. 

Pear-tree  Borer  (Sesia  pyri).  —  A  small  whitish  larva,  feeding 
under  the  bark  of  the  pear  tree. 

Remedy.  —  Same  as  for  round-headed  apple-tree  borer. 

Pear-twig  Beetle  {Xylehorus  pyri).  —  Brownish  or  black  beetle, 
one-tenth  inch  long,  boring  in  twigs,  producing  effect  much  like 
pear-blight,  and  hence  often  known  as  "  pear-blight  beetle."     It 


PEAR  INSECTS  327 

escapes  from  a  minute  perforation  at  base  of  bud  ;  probably  two 
<)roods. 

Treatment.  —  Burn  twigs  before  the  beetle  escapes. 

Pear  Psylla  {Psylla  pyricola) .  — These  minute,  yellowish,  flat- 
bodied,  sucking  insects  are  often  found  working  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves  and  fruit  early  in  the  season.  They  develop  into  mi- 
nute, cicada-like  jumping-lice.  The  young  psyllas  secrete  a  large 
quantity  of  honey-dew,  in  which  a  peculiar  black  fungus  grows, 
giving  the  bark  a  characteristic  sooty  appearance.  There  may 
be  four  broods  annually,  and  the  trees  are  often  seriously 
injured. 

Treatment.  —  Clean  culture  ;  remove  rough  bark  from  trunks 
and  larger  limbs  to  discourage  adults  from  hibernating  on  the 
trees,  and  spray  with  miscible  oils  while  trees  are  dormant.  Spray 
with  lime-sulfur  wash  at  strengths  used  to  combat  scale, 
just  before  leaves  appear,  to  destroy  eggs.  After  blossoms  have 
dropped,  spray  with  whale-oil  soap,  1  pound  to  5  or  7  gallons 
of  water  ;  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  8  to  12  parts  of  water  ; 
or  standardized  tobacco  decoctions  at  strengths  recommended  on 
containers.  If  psyllas  are  abundant,  trees  should  be  frequently 
sprayed.     (New  York  Experiment  Station.) 

Pear  Thrips  (Euthrips  pyri). — Minute  insects,  sV  "ich  in  length,  dark 
brown  when  adult,  white  with  red  eyes  when  young,  that  attack 
the  opening  bud  and  young  fruits  in  early  spring.  They  suck 
the  sap  from  the  tender  growth,  and  the  females  lay  eggs  in  the 
fruit  stems,  causing  a  loss  of  the  crop.  The  nymphs  hibernate 
in  the  ground  a  few  inches  from  the  surface.  A  serious  pest  in 
California  and  recently  introduced  into  New  York. 

Treatment.  —  Thorough  cultivation  during  October,  November, 
and  December  (in  California).  Make  two  applications  of 
"  Black-leaf  "  tobacco  extract,  1  gallon  in  60  gallons  of  2  per 
cent  distillate  oil  emulsion,  the  first  just  as  the  fruit  buds  begin 
to  open,  the  second  just  after  the  petals  fall.  In  the  East  it 
may  be  controlled  by  timely  applications  of  tobacco  extract  and 
whale-oil  soap. 
Pecan.  Bud-moth  (Proteopteryx  deludana).  —  A  brownish  caterpillar 
about  one-half  inch  in  length,  feeding  on  the  opening  buds  in  early 
spring  and  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  in  summer. 


328  lyjrRiors  insects,  with  treatment 

Treatment.  —  Arseiititc  of  lead  in  summer  to  kill  larvae  of  second 
brood.     Lime-sulfur  and  arsenate  of  lead  in  dormant  season  just 
before  buds  open,  to  destroy  hibernating  larvic. 
Case-bearer  (Acrobasis  nehulella).  —  A  small  caterpillar  living  in- 
side a  case  which  it  carries  with  it.     It  attacks  the  opening  buds. 
Treatment.  —  Arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to 
open.     Repeat  if  necessary. 
Borer  (.St.sm  sciiula).  —  A  wood-boring  caterpillar  working  in  the 
sap  wood. 

Treatment,  —  Digging   out. 
Twig-girdlers.  —  See  under  Persimmon  below. 
Rose-beetle.  —  See  under  Grape  and  Apple,  pp.  308,  322. 
Round-headed  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple. 
Slug.  —  See  under  Cherry,  p.  313. 

Twig-gird LER  {Oncideres  cingulatus).  —  A  brownish-gray  beetle, 
about  one-half  inch  long,  which  girdles  twigs  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember. The  female  lays  eggs  above  the  girdle.  The  twigs  soon 
fall. 

Remedy.  —  Burn  the  twigs,  either  cutting  them  ofif  or  gather- 
ing them  when  they  fall. 
TwiG-PRUNER.  —  See  under  AppLE,  p.  309. 
Persimmon.     White   Peach-scale    {Diaspis   pentagona). 

Remedy.  —  Lime-sulfur  when  the  trees  are  thoroughly  dormant. 
TwiG-GiRDLERS  {Oncideres  cingulat US  nud  0.  texana).  —  Dark  gray 
long-horned  beetles  that  girdle  the  twigs,  causing  them  to  drop. 
Remedy.  —  Pick  up  and  burn  fallen  twigs  in  fall  and  winter. 
Pineapple.     Katydid  {Acanlhacara  similis).  —  A  large  katydid  which 
attacks,  among  other  plants,  the  leaves  of  the  pineapple. 
Remedy.  —  Arsenicals,  before  the  plants  are  mature. 
Mealy-bugs  (several  species).  —  These  mealy  white  insects  attack 
the  ])lant  at  the  base  of  the  leaves,  usually  underground. 

Treatment.  —  Set  only  clean  plants,  or  tlij)  them  in  resin  wash 
or  kerosene  emulsion.  Li  the  field  ai)i)ly  tobacco  dust  freely  in 
the  bud  before  the  ])loom  begins  to  api)ear,  or  spray  with  kerosene 
emulsion. 
Red-Spider  (Stigrticeiis  floridanus).  —  Minute  mites  occurring  in 
great  number  at  tiie  base  of  the  leaf,  where  they  induce  rot. 
Treatment.  —  Tobacco  dust  applied  to  bud. 


PLUM  —  POTATO  329 

Plum.     Canker-worm.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  306. 
CuRCULio  {Conoirachelus  nenuphar).  —  Larva,  a  whitish  grub,  feed- 
ing in  the  fruit. 

Remedies.  —  Arsenate  of  lead,  6  pounds  to  100  gallons  of  water; 
apply  as  soon  as  the  calyx  falls,  and  repeat  two  or  three  times  at 
intervals  of  about  ten  days.     Jarring  the  beetles  on  sheets  very 
early  in  the  morning,  beginning  when  trees  are  in  flower,  and  con- 
tinuing from  four  to  six  weeks,  is  probably  the  most  sure  proce- 
dure.   There  are  various  styles  of  sheets  or  receptacles  for  catch- 
ing the  insects  as  they  fall  from  the  tree.     Clean  culture. 
Flat-headed  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple. 
Pear-twig  Beetle.  —  See  under  Pear,  p.  326. 
Plum-gouger     {Coccotorus    prunicida).  —  A    small    larva,    feed- 
ing upon  the  kernel  of  the  plum.     The  beetle  bores  a  round  hole 
in  the  plum   instead  of   making   a   crescent  mark,   like  the  cur- 
culio. 
Remedy.  —  Catch  the  beetles  over  a  curculio-catcher. 
Scale   (Lecanium    corni).  —  A    large    circular    scale  occurring  on 
plum  (and  perhaps  other)  trees  in  New  York. 

Remedy.  —  Thorough  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion,  one  part 
to  five  of  water,  in  the  winter.     More  dilute  emulsion  or  tobacco 
extracts  in  midsummer,  when  the  young  insects  are  on  the  leaves 
and  young  shoots. 
Slug.  —  See  under  Cherry,  p.  313. 
TwiG-PRUNER.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  309. 
Poplar.     Cottonwood  Leaf-beetle  {Lina  scripta).  —  A  striped  beetle 
feeding  on  the  leaves  and  shoots  of  poplars  and  willows. 
Remedy.  —  Arsenicals. 
Willow-worm.  —  See  under  Willow,  p.  336. 
Poplar  Borer   {Cryptorhynchus  lapathi). —  A  whitish  grub  bur- 
rowing in  the  wood. 

Treatment.  —  In  nurseries  spray  thoroughly  about  the  middle 
of  July  with  arsenate  of  lead  to  kill  the  parent  beetles. 
Potato.     Colorado   Potato-beetle    {Leptinotarsa    decemlineata) . — 
Beetle  and  larva  feed  upon  the  leaves. 

Remedies.  —  Arsenicals,  either  dry  or  in  spray,  about  a  third 
stronger  than  for  fruits.     Hand-picking  the  beetle. 
Stalk-weevil  (Trichobaris  trinotata).  —  A  grub  boring  in  the  stalk 


330  jxji'Jiious  ly SECTS,  with  treatment 

of  the  potato  near  or  just  below  the  ground.     Serious  at  the  West 
and  in  some  phices  eastward. 

Remedy.  —  Pull  all  infested  vines  as  soon  as  they  wilt,  and  spread 

them  in  the  sun  where  the  insects  will  be  killed.     Burn  the  vines 

as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested.    Destroy  all  solanaceous  weeds. 

FLE.\-nEETij:s    (Ilalticini).  —  Small,  dark-colored  jumping  beetles 

that  riildle  the  leaves  with  holes.     See  p.  303. 

Preventive.  —  Bordeaux  mixture  as  applied  for  potato  blight 
acts  as  a  repellent. 
Potato  Tuber-worm  {Phthorimcea  operculella) .  —  A  small  caterpillar 
burrowing  in  the  stems  and  tubers  both  in  the  field  and  in  storage. 
Preventives.  —  Clean  cultivation,  sheep  and  hogs  to  destroy  the 
small  potatoes  left  in  the  field  after  digging.     Crop  rotation  over 
a  considerable  area.     On  digging  remove  the  potatoes  at  once  to  an 
uninfcsted  storeroom.     Do  not  leave  them  on  the  field  over-night. 
WiHE-woims.  —  See  p.  305. 
Privet  or  Prim.     Prhtit  Web-worm  (Diaphania  quadristigmalis) .  — 
Small  larva  feeding  in  webs  on  the  young  shoots  of  the  privet, 
appearing  early  in  the  season  ;   two  to  four  broods. 

Remedies.  —  Trim  the  hedge  as  soon  as  the  worms  appear,  and 
burn  the  trimmings.     Probably  the  arsenicals  will  prove  useful. 
Quince.     Round-headed  Borers.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  308. 
Slug.  —  See  under  Cherry,  p.  313. 

Quince-curculio  {Conotrachelus  cratcegi).  —  This  curculio  is  some- 
what larger  than  that  infesting  the  plum,  and  differs  in  its  life- 
history.  The  grubs  leave  the  fruits  in  the  fall,  and  enter  the  ground, 
where  thoy  hibernate  and  transform  to  adults  the  next  May, 
June,  or  July,  depending  on  the  season.  When  the  adults  appear, 
jar  them  from  the  tree  on  to  sheets  or  curculio-catchers  and  de- 
stroy them.  To  determine  when  they  appear,  jar  a  few  trees  daily, 
beginning  the  latter  part  of  May.  Arsenicals. 
Radish.     Maggot  {Pegomija  brassicce). — Treated    the  same  as  the 

Cabbage-maggot,  which  see  (p.  312). 
Raspberry.  Caxe-borer  (Oberea  bimaculata) .  —  Beetle,  black,  small, 
and  slim  ;  making  two  girdles  about  an  inch  apart  near  the  tip 
of  the  cane,  in  June,  and  laying  an  egg  just  above  the  lower 
girdle  ;  the  larva,  attaining  the  length  of  nearly  an  inch,  bores 
down  the  cane.    Also  in  blackberry. 


RASPBERRY—  SQUASH  331 

Remedy.  —  As  soon  as  the  tip  of  the  cane  wilts,  cut  it  off  at  the 
lower  girdle  and  burn  it. 
Raspberry  Root-borer  {Bembecia  marginata).  —  Larva  about  one 
inch  long,  boring  in  the  roots  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  cane, 
remaining  in  the  root  over  winter. 
Remedy.  —  Dig  out  the  borers. 
Raspberry   Saw-fly    {Monophadnm  ruhi).  —  Larva  about   three- 
fourths  inch  long,  green,  feeding  upon  the  leaves. 
Remedies.  —  Hellebore.     Arsenicals,  after  fruiting. 
Root  Gall-fly    {Rhodites  radicum).  —  A  small  larva  which  pro- 
duces galls  on  the  roots  of  the  raspberry,  blackberry,  and  rose, 
causing  the  bush  to  appear  sickly,  and  eventually  killing  it.     The 
swellings  are  probably  often  confounded  with  the  nematode  root- 
galls,  for  which  see  p.  303. 

Remedy.  —  There  is  no  remedy  except  to  destroy  the  galls  ; 
if  plants  are  badly  affected,  they  must  be  dug  up  and  burned. 
Snowy  or  Tree-cricket  {(Ecanthus  niveus) .  —  Small  and  whitish 
cricket-like  insect,  puncturing  canes  for  two  or  three  inches,  and 
depositing  eggs  in  the  punctures. 

Remedy.  —  Burn  infested  canes  in  winter  or  very  early  spring. 
Rhubarb.     Rhubarb-curculio    {Lixiis    concavus).  —  A    grub    three- 
fourths  inch  long,  boring  into  the  crown  and  roots.    It  also  attacks 
wild  docks. 

Remedy.  —  Burn  all  infested  plants,  and  keep  down  the  docks. 

Hand-picking. 
Rose.     Root  Gall-fly.  —  See  under  Raspberry,  above. 

Mealy-bug.  —  Tobacco  extracts.     Syringe  the  plants  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  two  hours  later  syringe  again  with  clean  water.     See  also 

p.  303. 
Rose-chafer,  Rose-beetle,  or  "  Rose-bug."    See  Grape,  p.  3L-. 
Rose    Leaf-hopper   {Typhlocyba    rosce).  —  A    very  small    hopper, 

white,  often  mistaken  for  thrips,  living  on  the  leaves  of  roses. 
Remedies.  — Whsi\e-oi\   soap.     Kerosene.     Kerosene   emulsion. 

Dry  pyrethrum  blown  on  bushes  when  leaves  are  wet.     Tobacco 

Squash  Borer  or  Root-borer  (Melittia  satyriniformis).  —  Soh, 
white,  grub-like  larva  which  bores  inside  the  stem  and  causes  rot 
to  develop,  killing  the  vine. 


332  IXJURIOUS  INSECTS,    WITH   TREATMENT 

Preventives.  —  Plant  early  squashes  as  traps.  As  soon  as  the 
early  crop  is  gathered,  burn  the  vines  to  destroy  eggs  and  larvae 
of  the  borer.  Fall  harrowing  of  infested  fields  will  help  to 
expose  the  pupae  to  the  elements.  Cut  out  borers  whenever 
found.  After  the  vines  have  grown  to  some  length,  cover  some 
of  the  joints  with  earth,  so  that  a  new  root  system  will  develop 
to  sustain  the  plant  in  case  the  main  root  is  injured. 
Strawberry.  Crowx-borer  {Tyloderma  fragarice).  —  White  grub, 
one-fifth  inch  long,  boring  into  the  crown  of  the  plant  in  mid- 
summer.    The  mature  insect  is  a  curculio  or  weevil. 

Preventives.  —  Rotation  of  crops.     Isolation  of  new  beds  from 
infested  beds.     Plant  uninfested  plants. 
Leaf-roller  {Ancylis  comptana).  —  Larva,  less  than  one-half  inch 
long,  feeding  on  the  leaves,  and    rolling   them  up  in  threads  of 
silk ;  two  broods. 

Treatment.  —  Turn  under  in  the  fall  all  old  beds  that  have 
become  worthless.     Spray  with   arsenate   of   lead,  4   pounds    in 
100  gallons  of  water,   after   the   eggs   are   laid  but   before   the 
leaves  are  folded  —  the  first  half  of  May  in  the  latitude  of  New 
Jersey. 
Root-borer    {Anarsia  sp.).  — Larva,    about    one-half    inch    long, 
whitish,  boring  into  the  crown  of  the  plant  late  in  the  season,  and 
remaining  in  it  over  winter. 
Remedy.  —  Burn  the  plant. 
Root-louse  (Aphis  forbesii).  —  From  July  to  the  close  of  the  season 
the  lice  appear  in  great  numbers  on  the  crowns  and  on  the  roots 
of  the  plants. 

Remedies.  —  Rotation    in    planting.     Disinfect   plants   coming 
from  infested  patches  by  dipping  the  crowns  and  roots  in  kerosene 
emulsion,  or  tobacco  extract.     Fumigation. 
Saw-fly  (Emphytus  maculatus).  —  Larva,  nearly  three-fourths  inch 
long,  greenish,  feeding  upon  the  leaves  ;  two  broods. 
Remedies.  —  Hellebore.     Arsenicals  for  second   brood. 
Weevil    (Anthonomus  signatus).  —  Beetle,   one-eighth   inch    long, 
reddish  black,  feeding  on  flower-buds,  particularly  those  of  the 
polleniferous  varieties. 

Preventives.  —  Plant    principally    pistillate    varieties.     Every 
fifth  row  should  be  of  some  profusely  flowering  staminate  variety 


SUGAR-CANE  INSECTS  333 

to  insure  pollinization.     Clean  culture.     Destroy  all  wild  black- 
berry and  raspberry  vines  in  the  vicinity. 

Root-borer  {Typophorus  canellus).  —  k  whitish  grub  one-eighth 
inch  in  length,  feeding  on  the  roots.  The  parent  beetle  is  brown- 
ish, and  appears  in  great  numbers  in  May. 

Treatment.  —  Arsenicals  to  kill  the  beetles.  Plant  new  beds  at 
a  distance  from  old  ones. 

White  Grubs.  See  under  Corn,  p.  314. 
Sugar-cane  (D.  L.  Van  Dine).  Stalk-borer  {Diatrcea  saccharalis) .  — 
This  is  the  "  cane-borer  "  of  the  South,  and  is  a  species  of  long 
standing  in  the  southern  United  States.  The  insects  attack 
corn  and  sugar-cane.  The  insect  occurs  as  far  south  in  the  United 
States  as  the  Rio  Grande  valley  in  Texas,  and  as  far  north  as 
Maryland  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  In  corn-growing  areas  in  the 
South,  it  is  known  as  "  the  larger  corn  stalk-borer."  The  eggs  of 
the  insect  are  laid  on  the  cane-leaves,  and  the  caterpillar  of  the 
moth  develops  within  the  cane-stalk.  Between  the  months  of  May 
and  December,  the  complete  development  of  the  insect  occupies 
a  period  of  a  little  over  thirty  daj^s,  that  is,  a  brood  may  be  ex- 
pected about  every  month. 

Treatment.  —  The  control  measures  consist  of  the  burning  of  the 
trash  after  harvest,  fall  planting  where  possible,  not  to  intercrop 
cane  with  corn,  not  to  plant  corn  or  cane  on  windrowed  areas,  that 
is,  areas  on  which  cane  has  been  windrowed  for  the  spring  plant, 
and  to  cover  all  seed  cane  well  to  prevent  the  emergence  of  moths 
which  may  have  developed  from  ''  borers  "  planted  in  the  seed  cane. 

Mealy-bug  (Pseudococcus  calceolarice) .  — Common  on  sugar-cane 
in  the  southern  parishes  of  Louisiana,  and  recorded  further  in  the 
United  States  from  Florida  and  California.  Known  in  Louisiana  as 
"  pou-d-pouche."  The  insects  occur  in  a  mass  about  the  roots 
and  beneath  the  lower  leaf-sheaths  of  the  cane  plant,  and  the  mass 
is  covered  by  a  white  mealy  secretion.  The  mealy-bug  hiber- 
nates on  the  roots  of  the  stubble  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground 
or  on  the  stalks  put  down  in  windrow  as  seed  for  the  spring 
plant.  Brood  follows  brood  throughout  the  summer  months. 
Treatment.  —  Burning  of  trash  after  harvest,  fall  planting,  and 
the  selection  of  seed  cane  from  non-infested  areas  are  the  main 
methods  that  may  be  employed  in  the  control  of  this  species. 


334  INJURIOUS  INSECTS,    WITH   TREATMENT 

Root- BEETLE  {Ligyrus  rugiceps).  —  This  insect  occurs  tliroughout 
the  lower  Mississippi  valley  and  the  southern  states  generally  as  far 
north  as  North  Carolina.  As  the  name  implies,  the  beetle 
infests  the  roots  of  the  cane  plant.  The  insect  hibernates 
in  the  advanced  larval  or  the  pupal  stages,  and  the  adult 
appears  in  the  spring.  The  injury  to  the  cane  is  accomplished 
by  the  adult  eating  into  the  young  shoots  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  From  this  point  the  insect  works  downwards 
to  the  roots,  where  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  larva  develops  about 
the  roots.  In  the  case  of  young  shoots  the  injury  is  sufficient  to 
practically  sever  the  shoot  from  the  mother  cane  or  stubble.  This 
kills  out  the  heart  of  the  young  plant,  and  unless  the  cane  suckers 
well,  the  stand  is  seriously  affected. 

Treatment.  —  If  the  stubble  cane  is  off-barred  in  the  spring 
and  the  soil  kept  away  from  the  young  cane  as  late  as  the  conditions 
will  allow,  much  injury  from  the  root  beetle  will  be  avoided.  Fre- 
quent cultivation  of  the  plant  cane  will  disturb  the  beetles  in  the 
soil  and  lessen  their  chance  of  attacking  the  cane.  No  great 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  should  be  plowed  under  on  those 
areas  where  the  root  beetle  is  abundant,  since  this  favors  the  de- 
velopment of  the  larvae  or  "  white  grubs."  The  headlands 
and  ditch  banks  should  be  kept  clear  of  grass,  since  the  beetle  de- 
velops in  the.se  situations  bordering  the  cane-fields.  In  districts 
where  freezing  temperatures  occur,  late  fall  plowing  will  turn  out 
many  of  the  grubs,  and  they  will  perish  from  exposure.  During 
an  attack,  it  is  often  profitable  to  have  children  follow  and  collect 
the  beetles  behind  the  hoe  gangs. 

Sumac.     Apple-tree  Borer.  —  See  under  Apple,  p.  308. 
Jumping  Sumac-beetle  (Blepharida  rhois).  —  Larva,  half-inch  long, 
dull  greenish  yellow,  feeding  on  leaves  ;    two  broods. 
Remedy.  —  Arsenicals. 

Sweet-potato.  Saw-fly  (Schizocerus  ebnus  and  S.  privates).  —  Small 
larva  about  one-fourth  inch  long,  working  upon  the  leaves.  The 
fly  is  about  the  size  of  a  house-fly. 

Remedies.  —  Hellebore  and  arsenicals. 
RooT-BORER  (Cylas  formicarius) .  —  A  whitish  grub  one-fourth  inch 
in   length,   burrowing   through   the   tubers. 

Preventive.  —  Burn  infested  tubers  and  the  vines. 


SWEET  POTATO  —  TOMATO  335 

Tortoise  BEETLES  (Cassidini).  —  Beetles  of  brilliant  colors  and 
their  slug-like  larvae  which  eat  holes  in  the  leaves  of  newly 
reset  plants. 

Treatment.  —  Same  as  for  next. 
Flea-beetle.    ( Choetocnema  confinis) .  —  Small,  dark-colored  beetles, 
which  attack  the  plants  soon  after  they  are  reset. 

Treatment.  —  Dip  the  plants  in  a  strong  solution  of  arsenate  of 
lead  before  resetting.  Spray  once  or  twice  later  with  the  same. 
Rotation  of  crops.  Destroy  all  bindweed  and  wild  morning-glory 
plants. 
Cutworms.  —  Poisoned  bait.  Late  planting.  Keep  the  land  free 
from  weeds  the  previous  fall.  See  p.  302. 
Tobacco.  Flea-beetle  (Epitrix  parvula).  —  Small  beetles  eating 
holes  in  the  leaves  in  the  seed  beds. 

Treatment.  —  Cover   the   beds   tightly   with   canvas,  or   spray 
thoroughly  with   arsenate  of  lead,   one   pound  in  12  gallons  of 
water. 
Cutworms.  —  Use  poisoned  bait.     Sod  land  should  be  plowed  in 

fall. 
Horn- WORMS.  —  See  under  Tomato,  below. 

Flea-beetles,  Grasshoppers,  and  Tree-crickets.  —  Attacking  the 
crop  in  the  field,  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of 
lead,  1  pound  in  16  gallons  of  water. 
Tomato.  Fruit-worm  ( Heliothis  obsoleta) .  —  Larva,  one  inch  in 
length,  pale  green  or  dark  brown,  faintly  striped,  feeding  upon 
the  fruit.     Also  on  corn  and  cotton. 

Treatment.  —  Hand-picking.  Avoid  planting  close  to  corn  or 
cotton,  or  after  either  of  these  crops  or  after  peas  or  beans.  Prac- 
tice fall  or  winter  plowing. 
ToMATO-woRM  (Phlegethoutius  sexta  and  P.  quinquemaculata) . — 
A  very  large  green  worm  feeding  upon  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
the  tomato  and  husk  tomato.  Seldom  abundant  enough  to  be 
very  serious  ;  kept  in  check  by  parasites. 

Remedies.  —  Hand-picking.     Rotation  of  crops.     Clean  culture. 
Turkeys. 
Flea-beetles.  —  Dip  the  young  plants  in  a  strong  solution  of  arse- 
nate of  lead.    Bordeaux  mixture  acts  as  a  repellent.     See  p.  303. 
Violet.    Aphis.  —  Fumigation  when  grown  under  glass. 


336  INJURIOUS    INSECTS,    WITH   TREATMENT 

Gall-fly  {Contarinia  violicola).  —  The  adult  is  a  minute  mos- 
quito-like fly.  The  whitish  or  yellowish  maggot  feeds  in  folds 
of  the  opening  leaves,  which  become  deformed,  turn  brown,  and 
die. 

Treatment.  —  Fumigation  is  practically  of  no  value.     Thorough 
hand-picking  as  soon  as  any  sign  of  injury  is  noticed.     Do  not 
let  the  pest  become  established  in  a  house. 
Red-spider     (Tetranychus    bimaculatus) .  —  Minute     mites     which 
cause  the  leaves  to  turn  paler  and  become  yellowish. 

Treatment.  —  On  greenhouse  violets  there  is  nothing  better  than 
a  stiff  spray  of  clear  water  so  applied  as  not  to  drench  the  beds. 
Repeat  the  spraying  once  or  twice  a  week.     See  p.  304. 
Wheat.     Hessian-fly  {Mayetiola   destructor).  — A   small   maggot   in- 
festing the  plant  between  the  leaf  sheath  and  the  stem.     When 
full  grown  they  transform  to  the  puparium  or  "  flaxseed  "  stage. 
Preventives.  —  Crop  rotation,  destruction  of  all  volunteer  wheat. 
Burning  stubble  where  practicable.     Late  sowing  as  follows  :  — 
After  September  1  in  northern  Michigan  ;  September  20  in  south- 
ern Michigan  and  northern  Ohio  ;    October  1  in  southern  Ohio  ; 
October  10  to  20  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  ;    October  25  to 
November  15  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.     (Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology.) 
Joint- WORMS   {Isosoma  spp.).  —  Small    yellowish  larvae  found  in 
the  straw,  causing  hard  knots  or  galls. 

Preventives.  —  Crop  rotation.     Heavy  use  of  fertilizer  to  give 
a  rapid  growth.     Burning  of  stubble  wherever  practicable. 
Chinch-bug.  — See  under  Corn,  p.  314. 
Willow.     Willow- worm   (Euvanessa  antiopa).  —  Larva,    nearly   two 
inches    long,    black,    feeding    upon    leaves  of   willow,    elm,   and 
poplar  ;    two  broods. 
Remedy.  —  Arsenicals. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

Live-stock  Rules  and  Records 

Farm  live-stock,  as  the  term  is  usually  understood,  includes  the 
mammals  that  produce  edible  products  or  perform  agricultural  labor, 
as  the  cow,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  swine.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, it  should  also  comprise  poultry  (Chapter  XX),  but  this  large  group 
usually  is  treated  by  itself.  Many  kinds  of  pets  and  of  fancy  stock  — 
cats,  dogs,  cavies,  canaries  —  form  another  group. 

Determining  the  Age  of  Farm  Animals  (Wing) 
Cattle. 

The  teeth  of  the  ox  serve  to  help  in  the  determination  of  its  age, 
although  not  so  accurately  nor  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  the  horse. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  incisors  are  the  only  teeth  that  are 
used  in  the  determination  of  age.  Of  these,  the  ox  has  eight,  or  four 
pairs,  and  on  the  lower  jaw  only.  There  are  two  sets,  the  temporary 
or  milk  teeth,  and  the  permanent  teeth,  the  latter  differing  from  the 
former  mainly  in  their  greater  size  and  width. 

The  calf  is  born  with  the  two  central  pairs  of  milk  teeth  fully  up, 
and  the  remaining  pairs  appear  within  the  first  month  after  birth. 
When  the  animal  reaches  the  age  of  about  eighteen  months,  the  middle 
pair  of  milk  teeth  are  replaced  by  permanent  ones  that  are  fully  twice 
as  broad  as  the  milk  teeth.  The  interval  between  the  appearance  of 
the  succeeding  pairs  is  rather  variable,  depending  on  the  precocity''  or 
early  maturity  of  the  individual  and  also  on  the  breed  and  the  way 
in  which  the  animal  has  been  kept.  Young  cattle  that  have  been  ill- 
kept,  and  whose  general  development  has  been  delayed,  will  have 
their  dentition  delayed,  and  will  show  a  young  mouth  for  their  age. 
The  interval  between  the  appearance  of  each  two  pairs  of  teeth  is 
seldom  less  than  nine  months,  so  that  the  age  of  the  animal  at  the 
time  each  pair  is  up  and  in  full  wear  may  be  reckoned  as  follows  : 
z  337 


338  LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND    RECORDS 

Month! 

First,  or  middle  pair 1^ 

Second,  or  first  intermediate  pair 27 

Third,  or  second  intermediate  pair 36 

Fourth,  or  outer  pair 45 

If  there  is  any  variation  from  the  foregoing,  the  animal  is  Hkely 
to  be  older  rather  than  younger  than  the  teeth  indicate.  After  the 
teeth  are  up  and  in  full  wear,  there  is  comparatively  little  change 
in  their  appearance  for  several  years.  The  teeth  are  broad,  flat,  and 
white  in  color,  and  their  edges  should  almost  or  quite  meet.  They 
are  never  firmly  fixed  in  the  jaw,  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse,  but 
rather  loosely  imbedded  in  a  thick,  cartilaginous  pad  or  gums.  The 
looseness  of  the  teeth  should  not  therefore  be  taken  by  the  novice 
as  an  indication  of  unsoundness  or  of  advancing  age. 

After  the  animal  has  reached  an  age  of  eight  or  nine  years,  the 
teeth  become  narrower  through  wear.  They  shrink  away  from 
each  other  and  often  become  more  or  less  discolored  and  finally 
drop  out  one  by  one.  A  vigorous  old  cow  will  often  do  very  well, 
especially  if  fed  liberally  on  grain  and  succulent  food,  after  the  last 
incisor  tooth  has  disappeared.  And  so  long  as  the  teeth  are  all 
present  and  reasonably  close  together,  the  animal  is  said  to  have  a 
good  mouth.  This  condition  may  remain  up  to  ten  or  twelve  years 
of  age,  and  occasionally  even  longer. 

The  horns  also  afford  a  means  for  estimating  the  age  of  cattle, 
especially  of  cows.  During  the  first  two  years,  the  horns  grow 
rapidly  and  the  greater  part  of  the  total  growth  is  made  in  this 
time.  Afterward,  the  growth  is  slow  from  year  to  year,  and  each 
year's  growth  is  marked  by  a  more  or  less  distinct  ring.  The  first 
ring  appears  when  the  animal  is  about  three  years  old,  and  the  age 
may  be  reckoned  by  adding  two  to  the  number  of  rings  present. 

Sheep. 

Sheep  have  two  sets  of  incisor  teeth,  on  the  lower  jaw  only.  The 
first  or  middle  pair  of  temporary  teeth  is  replaced  b}^  permanent  ones 
when  the  lamb  is  thirteen  to  fifteen  months  old,  and  thereafter  the 
succeeding  pairs  of  permanent  teeth  appear  at  intervals  of  a  little  less 
than  a  year.  Most  shepherds  reckon  a  year  for  each  pair,  so  that 
when  the  last  pair  is  fully  up  and  in  wear,  the  sheep  is  four  years  old. 


AOES    OF    SHEEP,  PIGS,    AND    HORSES 


339 


As  age  advances,  the  teeth  grow  narrower  and  slimmer  until  advanced 
age,  eight  or  nine  years,  when  they  often  shorten  rapidly  from  wear, 
and  finally  disappear.  So  long  as  the  teeth  remain  strong  and  fairly 
firm,  the  sheep  may  be  said  to  be  in  good  working  condition. 

Swine. 

While  swine  have  two  sets  of  teeth,  temporary  and  permanent, 
as  in  the  other  domestic  animals,  the  dentition  is  so  irregular  as  to  be 
of  little  service  in  determining  the  age  of  the  animal.  Moreover,  the  dif- 
ficulty of  catching,  holding,  and  examining  the  animal  is  so  great  that 
the  teeth  are  seldom,  if  ever,  used  to  determine  the  age  of  swine.  In 
market  stock,  the  age  does  not  play  an  important  part,  as  the  value 
depends  entirely  on  the  weight  and  condition  of  the  animal,  except  in 
the  case  of  old  sows  and  stags  (castrated  mature  males).  The  former 
are  easily  distinguished  by  evidence  of  having  suckled  pigs,  and  the 
latter  by  the  tusks  and  the  development  of  the  ''shield  "  —  a  coarse 
heavy  fold  of  muscle  under  the  skin  on  the  shoulder.  In  breeding 
animals,  the  age  is  always  indicated  on  the  certificate  of  registry  of 
pure-bred  stock. 

Horse's  teeth  at  different  ages  (Roberts). 


The  lower  nippers  at  two 
years  old. 


Lower   nippers  at  three 
years  of  age. 


/ 

Side   view   of    the 
teeth    of     a    four- 
year-old. 


340 


LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND   RECORDS 


Lower  nippers  at  four  years  of 


Lower  nippers  of  a  five-year-old. 


Side  view  of  the  teeth  of  a 
five-year-old. 


Side  view  of  the  teeth  of  a 
six-year-old  horse. 


Lower  nippers  of  a  six-year-old. 


Lower  nippers  of  a  seven-year-old 


AGES    OF   HORSES 


341 


Side  view   of  the   nippers   of 
seven-year-old. 


The  lower  incisor,  or  nipper,  teeth 
of  an  eight-year-old. 


Side   view  of  the  teeth 
of  an  eight-year-old. 


Cross  section  to 
show  shape  of  in- 
cisor tooth  at  4,  9, 
14,  and  20  years. 


The  lower  incisor  teeth  of 
an  old  horse. 


A  side  view  of   the   nippers  Oi 
an  old  horse. 


Showing,  at  the  upper  end,  the  wear- 
ing away  of  the  cusps  at  3,4,5,6,9, 
and  20  years. 


342  LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND   RECORDS 


Gestation  and  Incubation  Figures 

The  period  of  gestation  is  the  time  between  the  impregnation  of 
the  ovum  and  the  birth  of  the  young.  In  egg-laying  animals  it  is  the 
period  of  incubation.  The  length  of  this  period  is  subject  to  con- 
siderable variation,  determined  by  various  causes  not  well  understood. 
In  general  its  length  is  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  The 
following  list,  and  remarks,  represents  only  a  few  animals  and  the 
period  of  gestation  of  each  (F.  B.  Mumford)  :  — 

Elephant 20  to  30  months 

Giraffe 14  months 

Buffalo 10  to  12  months 

.\s3 12  months 

Mare 11  to  12  months 

Cow 9  to  9H  months  (285  days) 

Bear 6  months 

Sheep  and  goat 5  months  (21  weeks) 

Sow 4  months 

Beaver 4  months 

Lion 3J/^  months 

Dog,  fox,  or  wolf 2  months 

Cat 50  days 

Rabbit 30  days 

Squirrel  and  rat 28  days 

The  period  of  incubation  extends  as  follows  for  domestic  fowls:  — 

Turkey 26  to  30  days 

Guinea 25  to  26  days 

Pea  hen 28  to  30  days 

Ducks 25  to  32  days 

Geese 27  to  33  days 

Hens 19  to  24  days  (average  21) 

Pigeons 16  to  20  days 

Canary  birds 13  to  14  days 


Small  breeds  hatch  earlier.  Hamburgs  hatch  at  the  end  of  the  twen- 
tieth day  ;  game  bantams  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  day.  Duck 
eggs  hatch  earlier  under  hens  than  under  ducks,  probably  because  of 
the  higher  temperature  of  the  hens'  body. 

Small  breeds  of  animals  require  rather  less  time  than  larger  breeds, 
although  early  maturity  shortens  the  time.  Cold  weather  retards  the 
process  of  incubation  especially.  According  to  Youatt,  all  animals  vary 
greatly  without  any  known  cause.  The  period  of  gestation  in  a  horse 
has  been  known  to  vary  from  ten  to  over  twelve  months.  Tessier  re- 
ports 582  cases  among  mares,  with  a  range  of  287  to  419  days  ;  1131 


NUMBERS    OF    YOUNG    AND    OF    EGGS  343 

30WS  ranged  from  240  to  321  days.  Earl  of  Spencer  reported  764  cows 
with  a  range  of  220  to  313  days.  L.  F.  Allen  reports  results  for  one 
year  among  a  herd  of  50  Shorthorns,  Herefords,  and  Devons,  as  rang- 
ing from  268  to  294  days,  or  an  average  of  284  days.  Tessier  observed 
912  ewes  with  a  range  of  146  to  161  days.  Darwin  found  that 
Merinos  run  about  150  days,  while  Shropshires  and  Southdowns  re- 
quire only  about  144  days.  Swine  vary  from  109  to  123  days,  but 
usually  run  116  days. 

In  practice  there  are  some  causes  which  hasten  birth.  A  sudden 
cold  spell  will  hasten  the  birth  of  a  litter  of  pigs.  Nervous  excitement 
will  hasten  birth,  especially  in  cows.  Parturition  of  a  neighboring 
cow  often  hastens  birth.  It  is  a  popular  opinion  that  male  offspring 
require  a  longer  period  of  gestation.  There  is  not  sufficient  evidence 
to  warrant  this,  but  in  one  case  of  observation  on  cattle,  the  average 
period  for  five  years  was  males  288  days,  females  283  days.  Heredity 
may  influence  the  period  somewhat. 

Number  of  young  at  birth  (Harper) 

Elephant 

Giraffe 

Buffalo 

Ass 

Mare 

Cow 

Bear 2 

Sheep 1-2-3 

Sow 2-14 

Beaver 4 

Lion 2 

Dog       3-8 

Cat 3-6 

Rabbit 4-8 

Squirrel 3-6 

Single-birthed  animals  occasionally  bear  twins.  All  multiple-birthed  animals 
are  exceedingly  variable  in  the  number  at  a  birth. 

[Number  of  eggs  in  brood  (Harper) 

Turkey        12-15 

Guinea-hen 15-18 

Pea-hen 10 

Ducks 9-12 

Geese 15-18 

Hen 12-15 

Pigeon 2 

Canary 3-4 


344  LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND   RECORDS 

Other  Characteristics 
Average  temperature  of  farm  animals. 

Horse,  100°  F.  ;  ox,  101°  to  102.5°  ;  sheep  and  swine,  103°  ;  dog, 
102.5°  and  very  changeable.  It  is  lowest  about  4  a.m.,  and  highest 
at  6  P.M.  The  liver,  of  all  the  organs,  has  the  highest  temperature, 
106.2°  F.     Poultry  105°  to  106°. 

The  pulse  of  farm  animals  (Harger). 

The  pulse  is  a  dilatation  of  the  elastic  wall  of  an  artery  at  the  moment 
of  the  heart-beat.  Its  character  is  some  indication  of  the  state  of  health. 
It  is  felt  in  the  horse  on  the  lower  jaw-bone  ;  in  the  ox  on  the  jaw,  the 
inside  of  the  elbow  and  cannon,  and  the  base  of  the  tail ;  in  the  dog 
on  the  inside  of  the  thigh. 

Number  of  pulse-beats  per  minute  :  Horse,  36  to  40  ;  ox,  45  to  50  ; 
sheep  and  pig,  70  to  80  ;  dog,  90  to  100  ;  camel,  28  to  32  ;  elephant, 
25  to  28.  It  is  slower  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  It  is  more  rapid 
in  the  young  than  in  the  old,  as  for  example,  in  the  foal,  100  to  120  ; 
in  the  calf,  90  to  130.  The  daily  work  of  the  heart  is  estimated  at 
1,539,000  foot-pounds,  or  one- third  of  a  horse-power. 

Period  of  heat  in  farm  animals  (Mumford). 

The  beginning  of  puberty  in  the  female  is  characterized  by  the 
ripening  of  a  mature  egg,  and  external  symptoms  which  together  are 
called  the  period  of  heat,  or,  in  some  wild  animals,  the  rutting  season. 
This  period  is  accompanied  by  various  manifestations.  The  external 
genitals  become  swollen  and  red,  and  this  is  accompanied  by  the  dis- 
charge of  a  reddish  mucus.  There  is  frequent  urination,  and  some- 
times a  swelling  of  the  mammary  glands.  The  female  is  often  restless 
and  utters  loud  cries. 

The  duration  of  heat  varies,  but  normally  continues  in  the  mare  two 
to  three  days,  in  the  cow  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  in  the  sow  one 
to  three  days,  and  in  the  ewe  two  to  three  days.  The  frequency 
with  which  the  heat  recurs  in  different  animals  varies  within  rather 
narrow  limits.  The  period  of  heat  in  the  mare  recurs  rather  irregu- 
larly, but  most  stallioners  agree  tliat  the  mare  will  come  in  heat  nine 


COLD    STORAGE    OF    ANIMAL    MATERIALS  34j 

days  after  delivery  and  each  two  or  three  weeks  thereafter.  The  cow 
comes  in  heat  forty  to  sixty  days  after  dehvery,  if  suckHng  the  calf, 
and  twenty  to  thirty  days  if  the  calf  is  taken  away  at  birth.  After  the 
first  appearance  of  heat  in  the  cow,  the  period  recurs  with  con- 
siderable regularity  each  three  weeks  thereafter.  The  sow  invariably 
shows  signs  of  heat  three  days  after  weaning  the  pigs,  and  recurs 
every  nine  to  twelve  days.  The  mare  and  ewe  come  in  heat  regularly 
during  the  spring  and  autunm  months.  At  other  seasons,  the  period 
is  irregular  and  often  entirely  absent. 

(All  dates  and  periods  of  this  kind  are  exceedingly  variable.) 

Quantity  of  blood  in  the  bodies  of  farm  animals  (Harger) . 

In  the  horse,  h  (6.6  per  cent)  ;  ox,  ts  (7.7  per  cent);  sheep,  A  (8.01 
per  cent)  ;  pig,  2^3  (4.6  per  cent)  ;  dog,  is  to  12  (5.5-9.1  per  cent) 
(Sussdorf).  An  average  horse  has  about  66  pounds,  or  nearly  50  pints, 
of  blood.  In  bleeding  horses,  about  one  pint  of  blood  for  every  hundred 
pounds  of  body  weight  is  removed. 

Temperatures  for  Cold  Storage  of  Animal  Products  (Hygcia 
Refrigerating  Co.,  Elmira,  N.  Y.) 

Hams,  pork  loins,  poultry,  and  all  meats  that  are  to  be  held  for  a 
long  carry,  should  be  put  into  the  freezer  at  a  temperature  of  10° 
above  zero  or  lower,  and  after  they  are  thoroughly  frozen  they 
may  be  transferred  to  a  temperature  from  15°  to  18°.  Meats  to  be 
held  for  a  short  time  only  maj^  be  carried  at  30°  to  32°.  Eggs  30°. 
Condensed  milk  is  carried  at  32°;  fresh  milk  at  a  point  just  above 
freezing,  where  it  can  be  carried,  of  course,  only  a  short  time.  Con- 
densed milk  can  be  successfully  carried  several  months;  cheese  at 
31°  to  32°;  dried  fruit,  nuts,  groceries,  etc.,  at  35°;  butter  from  zero 
to  10°  below  zero. 

The  success  of  storage  depends  not  alone  on  the  control  and 
accuracy  of  temperature  maintained,  but  on  control  of  humidity,  and 
in  some  cases  on  pronounced  circulation  of  air.  For  temperatures  for 
fruits,  see  page  149. 

Advanced  Registry 

The  herd-book  conserves  the  purity  of  a  breed,  being  based  upon 
purity  of  blood,  any  animal  being  eligible  to  registry  whose  sire  and 
dam  have  been  recorded.    An  Advanced  Register  is  a  herd-book  within 


346  LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND   RECORDS 

a  herd-book  based  upon  individual  merit,  and  designed  as  an  aid  to 
improvement  within  the  breed.  Advanced  registry  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  improvement  of  the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle.  The  registry 
is  made  on  the  report  of  an  official  test  as  to  milk  yield  and  butter-fat, 
conducted  by  an  Experiment  Station. 

The  Advanced  Registry  system  has  had  marked  effect  in  discovering 
and  publishing  the  good  animals,  eliminating  the  poor  animals,  and 
standardizing  the  performance.  The  four  leading  dairy  breeds  in 
America  —  Holstein,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Ayrshire  —  now  have  well- 
authenticated  records  as  a  result  of  this  system. 

As  illustrating  the  nature  of  the  test  to  warrant  Advancr^d  Registry, 
the  following  set  of  general  rules  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  Association 
of  America  is  inserted :  — 

1.  The  Station  representative  shall  be  present  at  the  last  regular 
milking  preceding  the  beginning  of  the  test  and  shall  satisfy  himself 
that  the  cow  is  milked  dry  at  that  time.  He  shall  note  the  hour  at 
which  this  milking  is  made ;  and  the  final  milking  of  the  test,  whatever 
its  length,  must  be  at  exactly  the  same  hour. 

2.  He  must  be  present  at  each  and  every  milking  during  the  test, 
and  satisfy  himself  that  at  the  close  of  each  milking  the  pail  contains 
nothing  but  the  milk  drawn  from  the  cow  under  test. 

3.  Under  no  circumstances  can  more  cows  than  one  undergoing  test 
be  milked  at  the  same  time.  The  Station  representative  must  in  every 
case  be  in  position  to  observe  the  milker  during  the  whole  milking. 

4.  Immediately  after  the  milk  is  drawn  at  each  milking,  he  will 
take  charge  of  the  pail  and  contents,  will  weigh  the  same  to  pounds 
and  tenths  on  scales  provided  by  his  State  Experiment  Station,  and 
enter  the  exact  weight  of  milk  at  once  in  his  note-book.  He  will  then 
take  a  correct  sample  of  the  milk,  sufficient  for  his  own  tests  and  for 
the  composite  sample  to  be  s.^nt  to  the  Station,  in  accordance  with  the 
following  directions : 

5.  As  soon  as  the  milk  has  been  weighed  it  is  to  be  thoroughly 
mixed  by  pouring  it  from  one  pail  to  the  other,  or  by  means  of  a  dipper ; 
and  a  pint  fruit  jar  is  to  be  immediately  filled  about  two-thirds  full  of 
milk  for  the  test  samples.  The  Station  representative  takes  charge  of 
and  is  personally  responsible  for  this  sample.  It  should  be  kept  under 
lock  and  key  until  tested.  The  test  is  proceeded  with  as  soon  as  con- 
venient, after  the  milk  has  cooled  to  ordinary  room  temperature. 


ADVANCED    REGISTRY    RULES  347 

6.  Fat  determinations  are  alwaj^s  made  in  duplicate,  and  the  average 
3f  the  two  determinations  recorded  on  the  record  sheet.  The  sample 
taken  of  any  one  milking  is  not  to  be  thrown  away  until  a  perfectly 
satisfactory  test  of  the  milking  has  been  obtained.  On  completion  of 
each  test,  the  Station  representative  will  at  once  indeUbly  enter  in  his 
note-book  the  results  obtained.  In  making  entries  of  fat,  the  super- 
visor shall  use  three  decimal  places.  If  the  figure  in  the  fourth  place 
be  a  5,  or  greater  than  5,  he  shall  count  it  as  one  of  the  next  higher 
order;  but  if  it  be  less  than  a  5,  he  shall  drop  it. 

7.  If  any  of  the  milk  or  the  test  sample  from  a  milking  be  acciden- 
tally lost,  the  missing  weight  of  the  milk  or  fat  credited  to  this  milking 
is  to  be  obtained  by  taking  the  average  of  all  corresponding  milkings 
during  the  whole  test;  that  is,  if  e.g.,  the  evening  milk  is  lost,  or  the 
test  sample  therefrom,  the  average  of  the  weights  of  milk  and  of  fat 
of  all  evening  milkings  during  the  test  is  taken  as  the  yield  of  milk 
and  fat  for  the  milking  lost.  It  must  be  stated  on  the  report  that 
data  so  obtained  are  estimated  and  not  actual. 

8.  Composite-Test  Sample.  At  the  time  the  test  of  the  milk  is 
made,  a  sample,  comprising  as  many  cubic  centimeters  of  milk  as  the 
number  of  pounds  in  the  milking,  is  placed  in  a  pint  fruit  jar,  con- 
taining a  small  quantity  of  preservative,  for  the  composite-test  sample 
to  be  sent  to  the  Station  when  the  test  is  completed.  A  25  c.c.  glass 
pipette  for  taking  this  sample  is  furnished  in  each  outfit. 

Each  and  every  milking  must  contribute  to  the  composite-test 
sample  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  yielded  each  time,  which 
will  be  accomplished  by  strictly  following  the  directions.  The  Station 
representative  will  be  responsible  for  the  proper  care  of  the  composite 
sample,  and  will  send  it  to  the  Station  by  express  immediately  on  the 
completion  of  the  test. 

9.  In  selecting  official  test  periods  of  not  less  than  seven  consecu- 
tive days  for  report,  the  test  periods  so  selected  may  begin  with  any 
milking  made  at  the  regular  hour  for  that  milking ;  provided  the  pre- 
vious milking,  as  well  as  the  last  milking  of  the  test  period  selected, 
are  also  made  at  the  regular  hour.  When  any  official  test  period  forms 
a  portion  of  any  semi-official  test,  a  detailed  report  of  the  whole  official 
test  period  must  be  made ;  but  the  Superintendent  of  Advanced  Regis- 
try will  only  report  as  A.  R.  0.  record,  or  records,  such  consecutive 
portion,  or  portions,  of  the  test  as  the  owner  may  select. 


348  LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND   RECORDS 

The  Station  representative  shall  fill  out  all  blanks  furnished  by  his 
Station,  or  by  the  Holstein-Fricsian  Association,  and  shall  make  oath 
before  a  notary  public  to  such  reports  as,  in  conjunction  with  the 
authorities  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  Association,  are  required  by  the 
Station. 

10.  The  Station  representative  is  not  at  liberty  to  decide  as  to 
which  stipulations  contained  in  the  rules  are  essential  and  which  are 
not,  but  is  required  to  observe  directions  in  all  details.  He  shall  re- 
port to  the  officer  of  his  Station  in  charge  of  tests  of  dairy  cows  any 
irregularity  or  unusual  occurrence  in  connection  with  the  test  which 
he  may  observe,  and  shall,  in  general,  take  all  possible  means  to 
conduct  a  fair  and  equitable  test  of  the  cows  placed  under  his 
supervision. 

Schedule  of  charges  for  supervising  records  of  cows 

As  an  illustration  of  the  costs  involved  in  the  testing  of  cows,  a 
statement  is  here  given  of  the  charges  made  by  one  of  the  colleges 
of  agriculture  for  such  work.  Something  like  one-half  of  all  Hol- 
stein  cows  in  the  United  States  with  advanced  registry  are  tested 
according  to  this  schedule.  Of  course  the  schedule  applies  to  any 
breed. 

A  uniform  flat  rate  is  charged  for  supervising  records  of  cows. 
This  flat  rate  covers  the  entire  cost  of  supervision  to  the  breeders  so 
far  as  the  college  of  agriculture  is  concerned,  and  includes  per  diem 
of  supervisor's  traveling  and  hotel  expenses,  expressage,  postage,  etc. 
The  owners  and  breeders  supply  the  sulfuric  acid,  pay  notary  fees, 
arrange  for  conveyance  to  and  from  the  nearest  railway  station,  and 
provide  for  living  expenses  at  the  farm  during  the  test.  No  super- 
visor will  be  allowed  to  remain  more  than  30  days  at  one  place. 
The  schedule  is  as  follows :  — 

1  day  record $6.00 

21  day  record S9.00 

7  or  more  days S2.25  per  day 

For  each  7-day  or  30-day  record  reported $1.00 

A  single  supervisor  will  not  be  required  to  test  more  than  6  cows 
milked  4  times  a  day;  8  cows  milked  3  times  a  day;  or  15  cows 
milked  twice  a  day. 


HOLSTEIN    RULES    AND    REC0RD,3 


349 


Supervisors  will  be  sent  to  suit  the  convenience  of  owners  as  far 
as  possible,  but  we  cannot  promise  a  supervisor  for  any  definite  date. 
Between  October  and  June,  application  for  supervisors  should  be 
made  at  least  three  weeks  in  advance,  in  order  to  be  reasonably  sure 
of  a  supervisor  at  the  time  desired.  An  application  for  a  supervisor 
may  be  canceled  or  a  date  deferred  at  any  time  up  to  three  days 
before  the  man  is  due.  Supervisors  will  be  sent  to  waiting  owners 
in  order  of  date  of  application. 

Holstein-Friesian  records. 


The  Holstein-Friesian  Association  has  four  prize  divisions,  with 
seven  classes  in  each  division.  Following  are  the  leading  records  for 
each  class  in  three  of  the  divisions,  —  the  7-day,  30-day,  and  the  semi- 
official or  yearly  division.  Breeders  are  not  usually  satisfied  to  have 
their  cows  merely  qualify,  but  strive  to  see  how  much  they  can  exceed 
the  minimum  requirements,  which  are  as  follows :  — 

If  the  cow  calves  at  two  years  of  age  or  under,  7.2  lb.  fat  in  seven 
consecutive  days. 

If  the  cow  calves  at  three  years  of  age,  8.8  lb.  fat  in  seven  con- 
secutive days. 

If  the  cow  calves  at  four  years  of  age,  10.4  lb.  fat  in  seven  con- 
secutive days. 

If  the  cow  calves  at  five  years  of  age  or  older,  12.0  lb.  fat  in  seven 
consecutive  days. 

If  the  cow  calves  between  two  and  three  years,  or  between  three 
and  four  years,  or  between  four  and  five  years  old,  every  day  of  in- 
creased age  adds  to  the  requirement  of  the  year  .00439  of  a  pound 

of  fat. 

Leading  Cows  in  the  7-day  Division 


Name  of  Cow 


K.  P.  Pontiac  Lass        .     . 
Valdessa  Scott  2d      .     .     . 
Johanna  De  Kol  Van  Beers 
Pontiac  Lady  Korndyke    . 

Pontiac  Pet 

Tweede  White  Lady      .     . 
Pontiac  Clothilde  De  Kol  2d 
Agatha  Pontiac    .... 
Lady  Oak  Fobes  De  Kol 


H.  B. 

Number 


106812 
72311 
75131 
92700 
69710 
83186 
69991 
99818 

104269 


Age  at 
Time  of 
Calving 


10  24 
9  15 
0  11 


Pounds 

OF 

Milk 


585.9 
694.6 
663.4 
601.4 
590.7 
504.7 
646.1 
575.8 
623.0 


Av. 
Per 
Cent 


6.03 
4.82 
4.83 
5.06 
5.10 
5.94 
4.60 
5.13 
4.68 


Pounds 

OF 

Butter- 
fat 


35.343 
33.500 
32.059 
30.422 
30.142 
29.963 
29.766 
29.520 
29.155 


350 


LIVE-STOCK    RULES    AND    RECORDS 


Leading  Cows  in  the  7-day  Division  —  Continued 


Name  of  Cow 

H.  B. 

Number 

Age  at 
Time  of 
Calving 

Pounds 

OF 

Milk 

Av. 
Per 
Cent 

Pounds 

OF 

Butter- 
fat 

Gerben  Queen 

Aaggic  Paulino  Sarcastic 

Sadie  Vale  Koruflyko 

Fairmont  Zerma  Sogis  Pietje    .     .     . 
Pietertje  Maid  Ormsby 

68164 
86737 
95127 
107672 
78051 

8  2  12 
5  11  24 

5  7  16 
4     1   11 

6  4  14 

654.6 
619.9 
655.7 
608.4 
535.4 

4.45 

4.69 
4.42 
4.68 
5.31 

29.111 
29.079 
28.961 
28.484 
28.450 

Semi-official  Division  (Yearly) 


Finderne  Pride  Johanna  Rue    .     .     . 
Finderne  Holingen  Fayne     .     .     .     . 

Banostino  Belle  De  Kol 

Pontiac  Clothilde  De  Kol  2d    .     .     . 
High-lawn  Hartog  De  Kol    .     .     .     . 

Colantha  4th'.s  Joliaiina 

Lothian  Maggie  De  Kol 

Maple  Crest  Pontiac  Flora  Hartog  . 

Crown  Pontiac  Josey 

Maple  Crest  Pontiac  Spotted  Annie 

Caroline  Paul  Parthenea 

Daisy  Grace  De  Kol 

Tilly  Alcartra 

Lindenwood  Hope 

Buckeye  De  Kol  Pauline  2d      .     .     . 


121083 

5 

4     4 

28403.7 

4.11 

144551 

3 

4  14 

24612.8 

4.53 

90441 

5 

2  22 

27404.4 

3.86 

69991 

6 

10  24 

25318.0 

4.02 

84319 

5 

11    12 

25592.5 

3.90 

48577 

8 

1    19 

27432.5 

3.64 

90209 

6 

10  14 

27967.6 

3.54 

143950 

5 

2     1 

25106.3 

3.93 

101812 

6 

0  20 

28752.3 

3.42 

141104 

5 

1      1 

21393.0 

4.59 

77784 

9 

4  23 

25072.6 

3.86 

98228 

4 

3  13 

21718.3 

4.43 

123459 

5 

1     6 

30451.4 

3.12 

115655 

4 

8    0 

20404.7 

4.56 

94346 

6 

2     0 

20784.3 

4.46 

1176.47 

1116.05 

1058.34 

1017.28 

998.34 

998.26 

990.80 

986.11 

982.23 

981.02 

966.55 

962.80 

951.23 

931.45 

927.61 


Ayrshire  records. 

A  cow  is  eligible  for  Advanced  Registry  in  the  Ayrshire  Breeders' 
Association  as  follows :  — 

No  cow  shall  be  admitted  to  Advanced  Registry  unless  she  shall 
have  been  previously  recorded  in  the  Ayrshire  Record. 

Two-year-old  form.  —  Year's  record.  If  her  record  begins  the  day 
she  is  two  years  old,  or  before  that  time,  she  shall,  to  entitle  her  to 
record,  give  not  less  than  6000  pounds  of  milk  in  365  consecutive 
days  from  the  beginning  of  the  test  and  214.3  pounds  of  butter  fat, 
and  for  each  day  she  is  over  two  years  old  at  time  of  beginning  the 
test  there  shall  be  added  1.37  pounds  of  milk  to  the  6000  pounds 
and  .06  pound  of  butter  fat  to  the  214.3  pounds. 

Three-year-old  form.  —  If  her  record  begins  the  day  she  is  three 
years  old,  she  shall,  to  entitle  her  to  record,  give  not  less  than  6500 
pounds  of  milk  in  365  consecutive  days  from  the  beginning  of  the 
test  and  236  pounds  of  butter  fat,  and  for  each  day  she  is  over  three 
years  old  at  the  time  of  beginning  the  test  there  shall  be  added  2.74 
pounds  of  milk  to  the  6500  pounds  and  .12  pound  of  butter  fat  to 


AYRSHIRE   RECORDS 


351 


the  236  pounds,  which  addition  shall  be  made  in  each  succeeding 
form  to  maturity. 

Four-year-old  form.  —  Year's  record  —  7500  pounds  of  milk  and 
279  pounds  of  butter-fat. 

Mature  form.  —  Year's  record  —  8500  pounds  of  milk  and  322 
pounds  of  butter-fat. 

Leading  Records  in  each  Class  to  June  1,  1915 


Class 


Over  5  years 
4 1  to  5  years 
4  to  4 1  years 
3  2  to  4  years 
3 1  to  4  years 
3  to  3§  years 
2  2  to  3  years 
2    to  2 1  years 


Name  op  Cow 


Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th  . 

Miss  Nox  3d 

Agnes  Wallace  of  Maple  Grove 
Elizabeth  of  Juneau  .  .  .  . 
The  Abbess  of  Torr  .  .  .  . 
Ethel  of  South  Farm  .  .  . 
Henderson's  Dairy  Gem  .  . 
Jean  Armour  3d 


Lb.  Milk 


23,022 
15,015 
17,657 
15,122 
14,582 
15,056 
17,974 
14,987 


%  Fat 


3.99 
3.84 
4.65 
3.55 
4.39 
3.91 
4.11 
4. 


Lb.  Fat 


917.60 
576.94 
821.45 
536.15 
640.72 
589.20 
738.32 
599.91 


Ten  Leading  Records  in  the  Mature  Class 


Name  op  Cow 


27943     Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th,  547         .     . 
Owned  by  Percival  Roberts,   Jr.,   Nar- 
berth,  Pa. 

27950     Garclaugh  Spottie,  772         

Owned    by    John    R.    Valentine,    Bryn 
Mawr,  Pa. 

22269     Lily  of  Willowmoor,  299 

Owned  by  J.  W.  Clise,  Redmond,  Wash. 
36910     Auchenbrain  Yellow  Kate  3d,  1356  .     .     . 
Owned  by  Percival  Roberts,   Jr.,   Nar- 
berth.  Pa. 

23853     Gerranton  Dora  2d,  663 

Owned  by  J.  W.  Clise,  Redmond,  Wash. 

25487     Jean  Armour,  635 

Owned  by  W.  P.  Schanck,  Avon,  N.Y. 

25295     Rena  Ross  2d,  438 

Owned    by    John    R.    Valentine,    Bryn 
Mawr,  Pa. 

23985     Netherhall  Brownie  9th,  371 

Owned  by  J.  W.  Clise,  Redmond,  Wash. 

26013     Keepsake  2d,  330        

Owned    by    John    R.    Valentine,    Bryn 
Mawr,  Pa. 
24673     Nether  Craig  Spicy  Queen,  240    .     . 

Owned   by   Geo.   H.    McFadden,   Rose- 
mo  nt,  Pa. 


Lb. 

Milk 


23,022 

22,589 

22,106 
21,123 


21,023 
20,174 
18,849 

18,110 
17,410 

17,074 


Lb. 

Fat 


917.60 

816.25 

888.70 
888.33 

804.79 
774.73 
713.56 

820.91 
711.27 

692.69 


Lb. 

Butter 


1080 

960 

1046 
1045 

947 
912 

840 

966 
837 

803 


% 
Fat 


3.99 

3.61 

4.02 
4.21 

3.83 
3.84 
3.79 

4.53 
4.09 

4.06 


352 


LIVE-STOCK  RULES  AND  RECORDS 


Guernsey  records. 

All  animals  admitted  to  the  Advanced  Register  must  previously  be 
entered  in  the  Herd  Register  of  The  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club. 
Any  such  will  be  admitted  into  the  Advanced  Register  under  any  of 
the  following  conditions :  — 

Bulls  having  two  daughters  in  the  Advanced  Register. 

Cows  having  equalled  or  exceeded  the  following  requirements:  — 

If  record  is  commenced  the  day  the  animal  is  two  years  old,  or  pre- 
vious to  that  day,  she  must  produce  within  one  year  from  the  date 
250.5  lb.  butter-fat.  For  each  day  the  animal  is  over  two  years  old 
at  the  beginning  of  her  year's  period  the  amount  of  butter-fat  she  will 
be  required  to  produce  in  the  year  will  be  established  by  adding  .1 
(one  tenth)  of  a  pound  for  each  such  day,  to  the  250.5  lb.  required 
when  two  years  old.  This  ratio  is  applicable  until  the  animal  is  five 
years  old,  when  the  required  amount  will  have  reached  360  lb.,  which 
will  be  the  amount  of  butter-fat  required  of  all  cows  five  years  old  or 
over.  These  yearly  standards  are  based  upon  one  complete  year's 
record  from  time  of  beginning,  regardless  of  the  time  lost  by  being  dry 
or  calving  during  that  period,  should  such  be  the  case. 

Butter-fat. — The  per  cent  of  butter-fat  shall  be  determined  by  the 
Babcock  test  for  two  full  and  consecutive  days  in  each  month  in  the 
yearly  records. 

Re-entry.  — An  animal  having  been  admitted  to  the  Advanced  Regis- 
ter may  be  re-tested  for  purpose  of  giving  a  better  record,  and  if  suc- 
cessful so  admitted  and  record  published  as  "Entry  of  Additional 
Record,"  using  the  original  number  assigned  the  animal  and  giving 
reference  to  previous  record. 

Five  Leading  Cows  in  the  Several  Classes  of  the  A.  R.  as  they  appeared 

Sept.  15,  1915 

Class  A.  —  5  years  and  over 


Murne  Cowan  19597,  A.  R.  1906, 
Ro-entrv 

May  Rilnia  22761,  A.  R.  1726,  Re- 
entry      

Spotswood  Dai.sy  Pearl  17696,  A.  R. 
790,  Re-entry 

Julie  of  the  Ch^ne  .30460,  A.  R.  2752, 
Re-en  trv 

Imp.  Daisy  Moon  III.  28471,  A.  R. 
1909,  Re-entry 


Age 

Lb.  Milk 

Lb. 

Butter- 
fat 

Per  Cent 
Butter- 
fat 

Yr.    Mo. 

8         9 

24008.00 

1098.18 

4.57 

6         4 

19673.00 

1073.41 

5.46 

7         5 

18602.80 

957.38 

5.15 

6         1 

17661.00 

953.53 

5.40 

6         4 

18019.40 

928.39 

5.15 

GUERNSEY  RECORDS 


353 


Class  B.  —  4 1  to  5  years 


Name  op  Cow 

Age 

Lb.  Milk 

Lb. 

Butter- 
fat 

Per  Cent 

Yr.    Mo. 

PAT 

Dairymaid  of  Pinehurst  24656, 
A.  R.  843,  Re-entry 

Julie  of  the  Chene  30460,  A.  R.  2752 

Lady  Lesbia  25142,  A.  R.  1348,  Re- 
entry     

Pandora's  Valentine  of  Rich  Neck 
27622,  A.  R.  1742,  Re-entry     .     . 

Glenanaar  of  the  Glen  23619,  A.  R. 
1907 

4         8 
4       10 

4       10 

4         9 

4         7 

17285.30 
15174.20 

13582.75 

14341.60 

16813.10 

910.67 

827.26 

787.03 
784.22 
780.66 

5.27 
5.45 

5.79 

5.47 

4.64 

Class  C.  —  4  to  4 1  years 


Azucena's  Pride  2d  24957,  A.  R.  1469, 

Re-entry        

4 

1 

16203.90 

855.70 

5.28 

Governor's    Pauline    30472,    A.    R. 

2441,  Re-entry        

4 

3 

14930.00 

844.47 

5.66 

Imp.  Dora  II.  of  Les  Marais  37737, 

A.  R.  1999,  Re-entry       .... 

4 

1 

15434.90 

770.38 

4.99 

Imp.  Beauty  II.  of  the  Coutanchez 

28465,  A.  R.  2081        

4 

5 

13513.90 

748.81 

5.54 

Stella's  Favorite  2d  29167,   A.   R. 

2283,  Re-entry        

4 

0 

14529.60 

719.23 

4.95 

Class  D.  —  3 1  to  4  years 


Dolly  Dimple  19144,  A.  R.  628,  Re- 
entry     

Langwater    Dorothy   27944,    A.    R. 
1822,  Re-entry        

Imp.  Princess  of  the  Blicqs  28485, 
A.  R.  1908 

Rose  of  Langwater  24204,  A.  R.  1445, 
Re-entry        

Imp.  Ma  Charmante  6th  31925,  A.  R. 
1995 


3 

9 

3 

9 

3 

8 

3 

11 

3 

8 

18458.80 
16099.70 
12608.80 
15008.20 
15149.80 


906.89 
781.65 
774.16 
751.62 
740.20 


Class  E.  —  3  to  3 1  years 


Jehanna  Ch^ne  30889,  A.  R.  2588 
Dairymaid  of  Pinehurst  24656,  A.  R. 

843,  Re-entry 

Masher's  Elsie  24986,  A.  R.  1967      . 
Miranda  of  Edgewater  30970,  A.  R. 

23Q3 

Sweet  Maria  25151,  A.  R.  1803   '.     '. 
2I 


3 

5 

3 

1 

3 

6 

3 

0 

3 

0 

16186.70 


14562.40 

14458.70 


14617.30 
12542.50 


863.36 


860.26 
745.75 


730.49 

682.86 


354 


LIVE-STOCK   RULES   AND   RECORDS 
Class  F.  —  2i  to  3  years 


Age 

Lb. 

Per  Cent 

Name  of  Cow 

Lb.  Milk 

BUTTER- 

Butter- 

Yr. 

Mo. 

F.\T 

fat 

Langwater  Hope  27946.  A.  R.  1978 

2 

7 

15078.80 

773.59 

5.13 

Azueena's  Pride  2d  24957,  A.  R.  1469 

2 

9 

12633.30 

706.46 

5.59 

Rose  of  LaiiRwater  24204,  A.  R.  1445 

2 

7 

12966.50 

669.89 

5.17 

Imp.    Buttercup    II.  of    Beauregard 

35799.  A.  It.  2638        

2 

11 

10623.30 

659.71 

6.21 

May    Belle   of   Linda    Vista   29679, 

A.  R.  2134 

2 

7 

11981.76 

653.02 

5.43 

Class  G.  — 2  to  2 1  years 


Cherry  of  Edgewater  384 13,  A.  R.  3361 
Nella  Jay  4th  38233,  A.  R.  3194  .     . 
Dollv  Dimple  19144.  A.  R.  628    .     . 
Golden  Elsie  2d  33422,  A.  R.  2274 
Princess  Deasie  36703,  A.  R.  2275 


2 

4 

13454.20 

732.97 

2 

2 

14772.70 

726.32 

2 

2 

14009.13 

703.36 

2 

0 

13409.00 

672.94 

2 

3 

11943.10 

666.22 

5.45 
4.92 
5.02 
5.02 
5.58 


The  average  of  theso  35  leading  Guernsey  Cows  is  15152.52  lb.  milk;   795.46 
lb.  butter-fat.     Average  per  cent  of  butter-fat,  5.25 

Jersey  records. 

The  regulations  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  governing 
"authenticated  fat  tests  "  are  as  follows:  — 

Seven,  fourteen  and  thirty  days'  tests. —  (l)  In  the  case  of  tests  for 
seven,  fourteen  or  thirty  days,  the  Babcock  method  must  be  applied 
to  a  sample  of  the  milk  of  every  milking  during  the  test,  and  the 
milk  of  every  milking  must  be  weighed. 

No  record  will  be  accepted  of  a  test  of  less  than  twelve  pounds  of 
butter-fat  in  seven  consecutive  days. 

No  record  will  be  accepted  of  a  test  for  a  period  of  ninety  con- 
secutive days  or  any  sh'>rter  period  down  to  seven  days  unless  the 
butter-fat  amounts,  on  the  average,  to  one  and  seven-tenths  pounds 
per  day. 

Year's  tests.  —  (2)  Year's  tests  must  be  authenticated  by  applying 
the  Babcock  test  to  a  sample  of  the  milk  of  every  milking  during 
two  consecutive  days  in  each  month. 

If  a  test  for  the  period  of  one  year  is  cojnmenced  the  day  the 
cow  is  two  years  old,  or  previous  to  that  day,  she  must  produce, 
within  one  year  from  the  date  the  test  begins,  250.5  pounds  butter- 


JERSEY  RECORDS  355 

fat.  For  each  day  the  cow  is  over  two  years  old  at  the  beginning 
of  her  year's  test,  the  amount  of  butter-fat  she  must  produce  in  the 
year  is  fixed  by  adding  0.1  (one-tenth)  of  a  pound  for  each  such  day 
to  the  250.5  pounds  required  when  two  years  old.  This  ratio  of 
increase  applies  until  the  cow  is  five  years  old  at  the  beginning  of 
her  test,  when  the  required  amount  will  have  reached  360  pounds, 
which  will  be  the  amount  of  butter-fat  required  of  all  cows  five 
years  old  or  over.  These  standards  are  based  upon  one  complete 
year's  record  from  the  time  of  beginning,  regardless  of  any  time  which 
may  be  lost  by  being  dry  or  calving  during  that  period. 

The  production  of  butter-fat  for  each  month  is  to  be  estimated  from 
the  results  obtained  by  the  official  application  of  the  Babcock  test. 
The  milk  of  every  milking  during  the  continuance  of  a  test  must  be 
weighed,  and,  in  reporting  the  test  to  the  Club,  must  be  set  forth  in 
detail  and  certified  to  on  a  form  provided  for  the  purpose. 

"Authenticated  milk  tests"  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club 
are  as  follows,  (authentication  consists  of  a  check  by  the  tester 
for  two  successive  days  per  month,  on  which  days  he  shall  weigh  the 
milk  of  every  milking  and  report  the  same  to  the  Club.  Such  milk 
yields  as  meet  any  of  the  following  requirements  may  be  received 
and  published  as  authenticated  milk  jdelds) :  — 

If  a  test  for  the  period  of  one  year  is  commenced  the  day  the  cow 
is  two  years  old,  or  previous  to  that  day,  she  must  produce  within 
one  year  from  the  date  the  test  begins  6,000  pounds  of  milk.  For 
each  day  the  cow  is  over  two  years  old  at  the  beginning  of  her  year's 
test,  the  amount  of  milk  she  mast  produce  in  the  year  is  fixed  by 
adding  3.65  pounds  for  each  such  day  to  the  6,000  pounds  required 
when  two  years  old.  This  ratio  of  increase  applies  until  the  cow  is 
five  years  old  at  the  beginning  of  her  test,  when  the  required  amount 
will  have  reached  10,000  pounds,  which  will  be  the  amount  of  milk 
required  of  all  cows  five  years  old  or  over.  These  standards  are 
based  upon  one  complete  year's  record  from  the  time  of  beginning, 
regardless  of  any  time  which  may  be  lost  by  being  dry  or  calving 
during  that  period. 

A  cow  meeting  the  requirements  as  to  year's  milk  yield  as  stated 
above  is  eligible  to  the  Register  of  Merit. 


356 


LIVE-STOCK   RULES   AND   RECORDS 


HIGHEST  YIELDS  OF  JERSEYS 


Best  Five  Records  in  Year's  Tests  at  Various  Ages. 

No.  of  Cows) 


Sept.  1,  1915  (with  H.  R. 


Class  1.  —  Cows  under  2  Years 


Milk 

Lb. 

14260 

9830 

9749 


5. 
6.4 

10214     11.2 
1. 


12345  8. 

14513  2. 

11115  11. 

14160  5. 

11730  10. 


Luckv  Faroe  20S177        .      .      . 
Lass  64th  of  Hood  Farm  266735 
King's  {;o1(1lmi  Diploma  252638 
Northern  Beauty  2d  296337 
Ruby's  Bonnie  Lass  264498 

Class  2.  —  Cows 
Pearly   Exile  of  St.    Lambert 

205101       

Lass  66th  of  Hood  Farm  271896 
Corinne  of  Roycroft  247303 
Lass  54th  of  Hood  Farm  257375 
Majesty's  EminentLady  265699 

Class  3.  —  Cows 

Lass  73d  of  Hood  Farm  277540  10953       6.4 

Salem's  Golden  Lucy  271911  11891        1.6 

Sayda's  Tina  of  Meridale  274725  9178 

Agatha's  Elista  252719        .     .  10147 

Mary  Golden  Letta  240917  9295       5. 

Class  4.  —  Cows 
Lass  74th  of  Hood  Farm  281203 
Tonona  Pogis'  Azalia  261480 
Lass  63d  of  Hood  Farm  266734 
Successful  Queen  278743     .     . 
Landseer's  Pacific  Pearl  205097 

Class  5.  —  Cows 
Lass  66th  of  Hood  Farm  271896 
Figgis    97th    of    Hood    Farm 

273502       

Lass  40th  of  Hood  Farm  223642 
Lass  47th  of  Hood  Farm  240327 
Lass  30th  of  Hood  Farm  214511 

Class  6.  —  Cows 
Lass  64th  of  Hcjod  Farm  266735 
Flying  Fox's  Maid  265318  .  . 
Golden  Massoy  Polo  3d  234393 
St.  Mawes  Zoo  253435  .  .  . 
Mabel's    Raleigh's    Snowdrop 

243890      

Edith  Marigold  247304    .     .    . 

Class  7.  —  Cows 
Olympia's  Fern  252060       .     . 
Sophie    19th    of    Hood    Farm 

189748       14373         3. 

Rosaire's     Olga     4th's     Pride 

179509       14104     13.6 

Lou  2d  of  Hood  Farm  250505  12458       3.2 

Lass;30thof  Hood  Farm  214511         11413     13. 


Butter-pat 
Lb.       oz. 
635     11.8 
606      10.1 
559       0.13 


543 
539 


8.9 
2. 


8823 
2  Years  and  under  2\  Years 


816  1.27 

720  8. 

640  15.3 
628       1.5 

626  14. 


2\  Years  and  under  3  Years 


659 
609 
591 
588 
557 

3  Years  and  under  3| 
13713     12.8  747 

13339     11.2  702 

12694     15.  690 

13088       6.4  682 

9045     15.  659 

3 J  Years  and  under  4 
17793     11.2  910 


14796  14.4 

15362  1. 

11410  9. 

11990  5. 


750 
747 
685 
684 


4  Years  and  under  A\ 
13444  10  817 
14315  9.6  785 
12426  11.2  747 
11299   8      685 

12936   1.6     653 
11842         695 

IJ  Years  and  under  5 
16147  13.6     937 


6.5 

9.0 

2.3 

14.1 

7.8 

Years 
10. 

3.1 

6.9 

7.5 

6.6 

Years 
9.6 

9.1 

5.2 
12.6 
13.9 

Years 

13 

14.7 

15.6 

5.1 

13.8 
.8 
Years 
13.3 


854  13.7 


836 
708 
664 


15.8 
8.6 


Butter, 

85%  Fat 
Lb.  oz. 
747  14 
713  10 


657 
639 
634 


960 
847 
754 
738 
737 


879 
826 
812 


1 
10 

1 
15 


775  12 

717  2 

695  6 

692  12 

655  14 


802  14 
775  12 


1071  4 

883 

879  3 

806  13 

805  12 


962 

924  9 

879  15 

806  4 

769  4 

819  10 


1103  5 

1005  11 

984  11 

833  9 

781  2 


FAST  HORSES  357 

Class  8.  —  Cows  5  Years  and  over  Butter 

Milk  Butter-fat  85  %  Fat 

Lb.  oz.  Lb.  oz.  Lb.       oz. 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748  17557     12.  999  2.2  1175       7 

Spermfield  Owl's  Eva  193934  .     .  16457       6.4  993  4.06  1168       8 

Eminent's  Bess  209719    ....  18782     15.6  962  13.2  1132     12 

Jacoba  Irene  146443 17253       3.2  952  15.4  1121       2 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748  15099       6.  931  15.5  1096       7 

Best  Records  in  Year's  Tests  at  Various  Ages.     October  1,  1914 

Class  1.  —  Cows  under  2  Years 

Milk                 Butter-fat  87  %  Butter 

Lb.         oz.                Lb.        oz.  Lb.      oz. 

Lucky  Farce  298177       .     .     .           14260                      635     11.8  747     14 

Class  2.  —  Cows  2  Years  and  under  2|  Years 
Pearly  Exile  of  St.   Lambert 

205101 12345       8.  816       1.27  960       1 

Class  3.  —  Cows  2|  Years  and  under  3  Years 
Sayda's     Tina     of     Meridale   274725 

9178  591       2.3  695       6 

Class  4.  —  Cows  3  Years  and  under  3|  Years 
Tonona  Pogis'  Azalia  261480  .  13339     11.2  702       3.1  826       1 

Class  5.  —  Cows  3^  Years  and  under  4  Years 
Lass  40th  of  Hood  Farm  223642  15362       1.  747       5.2  879       3 

Class  6.  —  Cows  4  Years  and  under  4|  Years 
St.  Mawes  Zoe  253435  .     .     .  11299       8.       .      685       5.1  806       4 

Class  7.  —  Cows  4|  Years  and  under  5  Years 
Olympia's  Fern  252060       .     .  16147     13.6  937     13.3  1103       5 

Class  8.  —  Cows  5  Years  and  over 
Sophie    19th    of    Hood    Farm 

189748 17557     12.  999       2.2  1175       7 

Fast  Horse  Records^ 

Trotters 
Arranged  according  to  record  to  close  of  1910 
Uhlan,  bl.  g.,  by  Bingen,  29567  .    .     .  1 :  58       The  Abbott,  b.  g.,  by  Chimes,  5348  .  2 :  03J 

~ ~'         ~"""  Alix,  b.  m.,  by  Patronage,  4143      .     .  2 :  03| 

Highball,  b.  g.,  by  Dr.  Hooker,  24518  2:  03| 
Nancj^  Hanks,  br.  m.,  by  Happy  Me- 
dium, 400 2:04 

Jack  Leyburn,  ch.  g.,  by  Alto  Ley- 
burn,  38399 2 :  045 

Penisa    Maid,    b.    m.,    by    Pennant, 

1968 2 :  04J 

Sonoma  Girl,  b.  m.,  by  Lj'nwood  W., 

32835 2:04J 

Bob  Douglas,  gr.  h.,  by  Todd,  33822  2:  04^ 


Lou  Dillon,  ch.  m.,  bv  Sidnev  Dillon, 

23157 l:58i 

Major  Delmar,b.g.,bvDelmar,  13313  1:  59| 
The  Harvester,  br.  h.,  by  Walnut  Hall, 

31641 2:01 

Hamburg  Belle,  b.  m.,  by  Axworthy, 

24845 2:0U 

Sweet  Marie,  b.   m.,  by  McKinnev, 

8818 ".2:02 

Cresceus,  ch.  h.,  by  Robert  McGregor, 

647 2 :  02i 


1  Abbreviations  are  as  follows  :  — 

ch.,  chestnut  in  color  br.,  brown.  g.,    gelding, 

bl.,  black.  gr.,  gray.  m.,  mare, 

b.,    bay.  p.,   pacer.  h.,  horse. 


55S 


LIVE-STOCK   RULES  AND   RECORDS 


Pacers 
Arranged  according  to  record  to  close  of  1910 
Dan  Patch,  hr.  h.,  hv  Joe  Patchen.  30239  .  . 
Minor  Heir,  b.  h.,  hv  Heir-at-Law,  14035  .  . 
Audubon  Hov,  ch.  h.,  by  J.  J.  Audubon,  16995 
Star  Pointer,  b.  h.,  by  Brown  Hal,  16935  .  . 
Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  by  Crown  Prince    .... 

Dariel,  b.  ni.,  by  Alcander,  6617 

John  R.  Gentry,  b.  h.,  by  Ashland  Wilkes,  2291 
Ladv  Maud  C,  ch.  m.,  bv  ("hitwood,  5212 
Bolivar,  b.  g.,  by  Wayland  W.,  22516  .  .  . 
The  Broncho,  b.  m.,  by  Stornicliffe,  11674  .  . 
("opa  de  Oro,  b.  h.,  by  Nutwood  Wilkes,  22116 
Hedgewood  Bov,  ch.  h.,  by  Chitwood,  5215 
Joe  Patchen,  bl.  h.,  by  Patchen  Wilkes,  3550  . 
Little  Boy,  b.  g.,  by  Kenton,  6779  .... 
Robert  J.,  b.  g.,  by  Hartford,  3574       .... 

Fastest  records  for  one  mile 

To  Sulky  —  Race 

Evelyn  W.,  b.  m.,  by  The  Spy  

Minor  Heir,  p.,  br.  h.,  by  Heir-at-Law 

To  Sulky  —  Against  Time 

Dan  Patch,  p.,  br.  h.,  by  Joe  Patchen 

To  Wagon  —  Race 

Angus  Pointer,  p.,  b.  g.,  by  Sidney  Pointer 

To  Wagon  —  Against  Time 

Dan  Patch,  p.,  br.  h.,  by  Joe  Patchen 

Under  Saddle 

Country  Jay,  ch.  g.,  by  Jay  hawker 

Team  Record  —  In  a  Race 
Charles  B.,  p.,  bl.  g.,  by  Octoroon  ) 
Bobby  Hal,  p.,  b.  g.,  by  Octoroon  J 

Team  Record  —  Against  Time 
Minor  Heir,  p.,  b.  h.,  by  Heir-at-Law  1      .     .     .     . 

George  Gano,  p.,  b.  h.,  by  Gambetta  Wilkes  |      •     •     •     * 

Team,  Three  Abreast  —  Against  Time 
Belle  Hamlin,  b.  m.,  by  Almont  Jr. 
Globe,  b.  g.,  by  Almont  Jr. 
Justina,  b.  m.,  by  Almont  Jr. 

Team,  Four-in-Hand  —  Against  Time 
Damania,  ch.  m.,  by  Nutmeg 
Belnut,  ch.  g.,  by  Nutmeg 
Maud  V,  ch.  m.,  by  Nutmeg 
Nutspra,  ch.  m.,  by  Nutmeg 

With  Running  Mate  —  Races 

Frank,  b.  g.,  by  Abraham 

With  Running  Mate  —  Against  Time 

Uhlan,  bl.  g.,  by  Bingen 

Flying  Jib,  p.,  b.  g..  bv  Aleona 


1912 


1891 


55} 

58  i 

59  i 
59} 

2 
o 

59  i 
00} 
001 

2 

00 1 
00  f 

2 

00  i 

2 

01 

2 

01 

2 
2 
2 

01^ 

01 

01 

1912 

2:00^ 
2:00J 

1901 

1905 

l:55i 

1904 

2:  04| 

1903 

1:  57i 

1909 

2:  08i 

1900 

2 

13 

2:02 


2:  14 


1896     2 :  30 


1883         2:08^ 


1913 
1894 


1  :  54^ 
1  :  58} 


FAST  HORSES  359 

Fastest  records  for  two  miles 

In  Harness  —  Race 
Monette,  bl.  m,,  by  Monon 1894        4:45 

In  Harness  —  Against  Time    , 
The  Harvester,  br.  h.,  by  Walnut  Hall 1910        4  :  15^ 

To  Wagon  —  Race 
Dexter,  br.  g.,  by  Hambletonian  10 1865        4  :  56| 

To  Wagon  —  Against  Time 
Ed  Byran,  b.  g.,  by  Little  Corporal 1907        4  :  43 

To  Road  Wagon  —  Against  Time 
Temple  Hope,  b.  h.,  by  Nerval 1905        5  :  14| 

Under  Saddle 
George  M.  Patchen,  b.  h.,  by  C.  M.  Clay 1863        4:56 

Fastest  records  for  three  miles 

In  Harness  —  Race 

Fairywood,  b.  g.,  by  Melbourne 1895        7:16^ 

In  Harness  —  Against  Time 
Nightingale,  ch.  m.,  by  Mambrino  King 1893        6  :  55| 

Fastest  records  for  four  miles 

In  Harness  —  Race 
Longfellow,  p.,  ch.  g.,  by  Red  Bill 1869        10  :  34| 

In  Harness  —  Against  Time 
Joe  Jefferson,  p.,  br.  h.,  by  Thomas  Jefferson 1891        10  :  10 

Fastest  records  for  five  miles 

In  Harness  —  Race 

Zambra.  b,  g.,  by  McKinney 1902        12  :  24 

In  Harness  —  Against  Time 
Pascal,  bl.  g.,  by  Pascarel 1893        12:45 

Fastest  records  for  six  miles 

In  Harness  —  Against  Time 

Long  Time,  b.  g.,  by  Jack  Rowett         1893        16:08 

For  ten  miles 

In  Harness  —  Race 

Controller,  b.  g.,  by  May  Boy 1878        27  :  23i 

In  Harness  —  Against  Time 
John  Stewart,  b.  g.,  by  Tom  Wonder 1867        28  :  02^ 

For  eighteen  miles 
In  Harness  —  Race 
Bill,  ch.  g.,  pedigree  unknown 1885        58  :  10 


360 


LIVE-STOCK  RULES   AND    RECORDS 


For  twenty  miles 
Capt.  McGowaa,  roaa  h.,  pedigree  unknown     . 

For  thirty  miles 
Gen.  Taylor,  gr.  h.,  by  Morse  Horse 

For  thirty-two  miles 
Chancellor,  gr.  h.,  by  Chancellor 


For  fifty  miles 
Black  Joke,  bl.  g.,  pedigree  not  traced 


1865        58  :  25 

1857  1:47:59 

1831  1  :  58  :  00 

1835  3  :  57  :  00 


Fo:-  one  hundred  miles 
Conqueror,  b.  g.,  by  Bellfounder 


1853    8:55:53 


Fastest  records  at  different  decades  since  1800 


Yankee        

Boston  Horse,  ch.  g 

Bowery  Boy,  p.,  pedigree  unknown    . 
Drover,  p.,  b.  g.,  pedigree  unknown   . 
Unknown,  p.,  ch.  g.,  breeding  unknown 
Pocahontas,  p.,  ch.  m.,  by  Cadmus    . 
Billy  Bovco,  p.,  b.  g.,  by  Corbeau 
Sleepy  Tom,  p.,  ch.  g.,  by  Tom  Rolfe 
Johnston,  p.,  b.  g.,  by  Joe  Bassett 
Star  Pointer,  p.,  b.  h.,  by  Brown  Hal 
Dan  Patch,  p.,  br.  h.,  by  Joe  Patchen 


1800-1810 

1810-1820 

1820-1830  (2  miles) 

1830-1840 

1840-1850 

1850-1860 

1860-1870 

1870-1880 

1880-1890 

1890-1900 

1900-1910 


:59 

:48^ 

:04^ 

:  28 

:23 

:17l 

:141 

•  j2- 

:0q\ 

:  59\ 

:55i 


Profit-and-loss  Figures 
Profit  or  loss  in  dairy  cows  (Conn.  Agric.  Coll.) 

The  cow  is  charged  with  the  cost  of  food  eaten  at  regular  market 
rates,  in  the  locality  where  the  herds  were  tested.  The  prices  for 
the  year  averaged  as  follows  :  Hay  $16  per  ton,  silage  $3.50  per  ton, 
and  grain  S30  per  ton.  Besides  the  cost  of  food,  each  cow  was  sub- 
ject to  a  fixed  charge  of  $45  for  conducting  the  business,  obtained  as 
follows :  — 

Bedding  for  one  year $2.00 

Scrvifo  of  bull 1.00 

Labor 27.00 

Interest  on  investment 6.00 

Taxes 60 

Insurance .40 

Depreciation 8.00 

$45.00 

It  was  estimated  that  one  good  man  would  do  the  work  for  20 
cows,  including  milking,  feeding,  handling  of  the  milk,  and  delivering 
it  to  the  depot,  washing  all  utensils  used  about  the  barn,  etc.     Sucli 


PROFIT  AND   LOSS    WITH  ANIMALS 


361 


a  man  would  be  kept  busy  caring  for  twenty  cows.  If  his  wages  were 
$45  per  month,  it  would  therefore  make  a  labor  bill  of  $27  per  cow 
per  year. 

The  next  item  is  one  of  interest  on  investment.  Allowing  $60 
as  the  value  of  the  cow,  and  $60  as  each  cow's  share  of  the  investment 
in  barn,  tools,  etc.,  the  total  investment  per  cow  is  $120.  Interest 
at  5  per  cent  equals  $6  per  cow.  Taxes  at  ten  mills  on  one-half 
valuation  calls  for  60  cents,  and  insurance  for  at  least  40  cents.  These 
interest  charges  must  not  be  overlooked  in  any  careful  reckoning. 

The  last  item  in  the  general  bill  of  expense  is  one  of  $8  per  year 
for  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  cow.  Unfortunately  money  put 
into  cows  is  not  a  permanent  investment.  The  period  of  usefulness 
of  dairy  cows  will  not  average  over  four  or  five  years.  A  large  num- 
ber turn  out  to  be  poor  milkers  not  worth  keeping,  and  must  be  sold 
at  a  loss.  Others  are  ruined  by  accident  and  by  sickness,  so  that  prob- 
ably five  years  covers  the  average  milking  period  of  dairy  cows. 

Summary  for  one  herd  of  16  cows  for  the  year,  February  to  February 


Total  Cost 

FOR  the 

Total 

Year, 

Lb.  of 

Value  of 

Income  for 

charging 

Net  Profit 

Age  of 
Cow 

Milk 

Average 

Milk  for 

the  Year, 

Cost  of 

$45  per 

OR  Loss 

GIVEN 

Per  Cent 

THE  Year 

counting 

Food  for 

Cow  FOR 

FOR   THE 

FOR   THE 

Fat 

AT  4  Cents 

Manure 

THE  Year 

Labor,  De- 

Year per 

Year 

PER  Quart 

and  Calf 
worth  $12 

preciation, 

Taxes, 

Insurance, 

Etc. 

Cow 

3 

3289 

5.0 

$61.18 

$68.18 

$34.68 

$57.18 

$11.00 

10 

4312 

3.6 

80.23 

86.39 

35.69 

54.44 

31.95 

3 

3209 

4.2 

59.69 

65.85 

32.93 

51.68 

14.17 

3 

2634 

4.0 

49.00 

54.33 

31.56 

46.56 

7.77 

9 

4507 

3.1 

83.84 

95.84 

62.94 

107.94 

-12.10 

8 

7685 

3.1 

142.98 

154.98 

71.67 

116.67 

38.31 

9 

6735 

3.0 

125.40 

137.40 

69.70 

114.70 

22.70 

9 

7493 

3.6 

139.40 

151.40 

75.85 

120.85 

30.55 

9 

7853 

2.9 

146.10 

158.10 

71.00 

116.00 

42.10 

— 

6454 

3.2 

120.07 

132.07 

70.15 

115.15 

16.92 

10 

5678 

4.3 

105.64 

117.64 

63.40 

108.40 

9.24 

8 

5439 

3.6 

101.20 

113.20 

58.13 

103.13 

10.07 

9 

1804 

4.3 

33.57 

39.73 

25.66 

44.41 

-4.68 

6 

6214 

3.7 

115.52 

127.52 

68.29 

113.29 

14.23 

10 

5738 

5.1 

106.76 

118.76 

61.98 

106.98 

11.78 

8 

7023 

2.9 

130.6 

14.96 

59.14 

96.64 

44.32 

362  LIVE-STOCK   RULES   AND    RECORDS 

Profit  or  loss  in  fattening  steers  (Nebraska  Bulletin  116) 
84  days'  feeding 

Initial  cost  of  1043-pound  steer @S5.00     per  cwt.  $52.15 

Cost  of  1680-pounds  corn @      52c     per  bu.  15.60 

Cost  of  640-corn-stover @     4.00     per  T.  1.28 

Cost  of  570-alfalfa  hay @    7.00     per  T.  2.00 

Risk,  labor,  and  shelter 5.00 

Total  cost     ....  76.03 

Selling  price,  1274-pound  steer 6.02  per  cwt.  76.70 

Value  of  manure 5.00 

Income 81.70 

Total  cost  of  steer  .      .  76.03 

Total  profit  ....  5.67 

Profit  per  SI. 00  invested         .08 

Profit  or  loss  in  fattening  sheep  (Ohio  Bulletin  187) 
96  days'  feeding 

Initial  cost  of  50-pound  lamb @  $  6.00    per  cwt.  S3.00 

Cost  of  134  pounds  corn @      40c    per  bu.  .96 

Cost  of  125  pounds  clover  hay @  12.00    per  T.  .75 

Risk,  labor  and  shelter .50 

Total  cost        ....  5.21 

Selling  price.  74-pound  lamb @     7.00    per  cwt.  5.18 

Value  of  manure .60 

Income 5.78 

Total  cost        ....  5.21 

Profit .57 

Profit  per  8  1.00  invested .11 

Profit  or  loss  in  fattening  swine  (Indiana  Bulletin  137) 

60  days'  feeding 

Initial  cost  of  115-pound  hog @S5.25     per  cwt.  S6.04 

Cost  of  214  pounds  corn-meal @    18.00    per  T.  1.93 

Cost  of  214  pounds  middlings @    25.00    per  T.  2.67 

Risk,  labor,  and  shelter .75 

Total  cost       ....  11.39 

Selling  price.  234-pound  hog @     5.25  12.29 

Value  of  manure .50 

Total  income  ....  12.79 

Total  cost        ....  11.39 

Profit 1.40 

ProfitperS  1.00  invested .12 


Cow-testing  Associations  (Cornell  Station) 

All  evidence  goes  to  show  that  the  dairy  business  maintains  a  fairly 
profitable  status  only  because  good  individual  cows  make  up  for  the 
deficiencies  of  the  poor  ones.     The  elimination   of  poor  producing 


COW-TESTING   ASSOCIATIONS  363 

animals  is  undoubtedly  the  first  step  toward  improvement,  and  this 
elimination  cannot  be  successfully  brought  about  unless  records  of  in- 
dividual production  of  each  cow  are  systematically  kept,  and  along 
with  such  records  of  production,  it  is  also,  if  not  absolutely  essential,  at 
least  highly  desirable,  that  a  record  of  food  consumed  as  well  be  kept. 

There  is  no  reason  why  any  dairyman  should  not  himself  keep  the 
records  that  are  necessary  for  this  selection,  but  the  fact  that  most 
dairymen  do  not  keep  such  records  has  led  to  the  formation  of  cow- 
testing  associations,  so  that  the  ordinary  dairyman  by  cooperative 
effort  may  secure  information  at  small  cost  that  in  most  cases  he 
would  not  take  the  trouble  to  secure  for  himself. 

Cow-testing  Associations  may  be  organized  in  various  ways  and 
under  various  plans,  and  each  association  should  be  organized  with 
due  regard  to  its  own  local  conditions.  The  essential  feature  in  any 
organization  is  to  secure  a  good,  reliable,  trustworthy,  and  painstaking 
man  to  do  the  work.  Such  organizations  have  now  been  in  successful 
operation  in  other  states  for  several  years,  and  it  would  seem  that 
the  time  is  ripe  for  the  dairymen  of  New  York  State  to  avail  them- 
selves of  these  organizations  in  order  to  make  their  business  more 
satisfactory  and  more  profitable. 

The  most  feasible  method  of  organizing  such  associations  seems 
to  be  for  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  dairies  to  associate  themselves  into 
a  cow-testing  association,  each  owner  agreeing  to  weigh  the  milk  of  each 
cow  every  day,  and  the  tester  to  test  the  milk  of  each  cow  at  least 
for  one  day  each  month.  This  may  be  done  by  the  tester  himself 
visiting  the  individual  farms  in  turn  and  taking  the  samples  and  making 
the  test  ;  or  it  may  be  done  by  the  owners  themselves  taking  the 
samples  and  carrying  them  to  a  central  point  to  be  tested.  In  either 
case  the  tester  makes  the  tests,  calculates  the  production  of  fat  for 
the  cow  for  the  month,  and  makes  record  of  the  same  and  of  the  food 
consumed,  and  reports  regularly  to  the  owner  on  blanks  furnished  for 
the  purpose. 

The  details  of  carrying  out  this  work  may  be  varied  to  suit  con- 
ditions. In  any  case  it  would  require  the  services  of  a  reliable  man 
for  his  whole  time,  and  this  man  will  have  to  be  paid  a  fair  salary. 
Experience  has  shown  that  an  assessment  of  one  dollar  for  each  cow 
represented  in  the  association  will  cover  the  expense  of  the  work  for 
a  year,  and  in  some  cases  it  has  been  done  for  somewhat  less  than  this. 


364 


LIVE-STOCK   RULES  AND   RECORDS 


Apparatus  required. 

Babcock  tester,  not  less  than  10-bottle  size,  and  if  to  be  used  in  a 
creamery  where  steam  is  available,  at  least  24-bottle  size.  Babcock 
glassware  (state  brand).  At  least  twice  as  many  test  bottles  as  the 
capacity  of  the  machine,  with  acid  measure,  pipettes,  thermometer,  etc. 

Sulfuric  acid,-  -  about  a  pint  or  two   pounds  per  cow  per  year. 

Sixty-pound  spring  balance  scales,  graded  to  tenths. 

As  many  wide-mouth  sample  bottles  as  there  are  cows  in  the  largest 
herd  to  be  tested.  Each  bottle  should  be  supplied  with  a  numbered 
metal  band,  or  otherwise  plainly  and  durably  labeled. 

A  supply  of  record  blanks,  ruled  so  that  the  whole  record  for  a  cow 
for  a  year  can  be  entered  upon  it. 

The  cost  of  the  above  should  be  approximately  as  follows  :  — 

Wages  of  man  one  year  at  S50  per  month $600.00 

10-bottle  Babcock  tester,  SIO,  %  original  cost  each  year 2.50 

Extra  gla.ssware  and  breakage 10.00 

125  gal.  sulfuric  acid  at  55  cents  gal 67.75 

1  set  spring  balances 5.00 

4  dozen  sample  bottles 10.00 

Record  blanks 20.00 

S715.25 


Value  of  cow-testing  associations  in  Virginia  (Virginia  Bulletin  190) 

6 

is 

■< 

O  -  ^  D 

i 

b. 
O 

S 

o 

>  H 

O 

<  ^  z  w 

O  fc. 

O  Z  S  fe. 

o 

u 

HO, 

<CL, 

Oh 

><<^ 

>cc?^2 

Ho 

O  •<  J  o 

>-) 

1 

8109 

4.33 

351.12 

$102.09 

$16.22 

$118.31 

$44.54 

$73.77 

2 

5023 

5.20 

261.20 

76.12 

10.04 

86.16 

" 

41.62 

3 

4897 

5.13 

251.22 

72.87 

9.79 

82.66 

" 

38.12 

4 

4573 

5.30 

242.38 

'  69.70 

9.14 

78.84 

" 

34.30 

5 

4423 

5.33 

235.75 

68.36 

8.85 

77.21 

" 

32.67 

6 

4805 

4.63 

222.47 

63.99 

9.61 

73.60 

" 

29.06 

7 

4100 

5.20 

213.20 

59.73 

8.20 

67.93 

♦' 

23.39 

8 

3808 

5.33 

202.97 

58.05 

7.61 

65.66 

" 

21.12 

9 

3128 

5.83 

192.36 

55.70 

6.25 

61.95 

" 

17.41 

10 

3164 

5.27 

166.74 

47.85 

6.33 

54.18 

" 

9.64 

11 

2850 

5.75 

163.88 

47.13 

5.70 

52.83 

" 

8.29 

12 

3215 

4.80 

154.32 

44.08 

6.43 

50.51 

" 

5.97 

13 

2755 

5.13 

141. .33 

40.56 

5.51 

46.07 

" 

1.53 

14 

2835 

4.60 

1.30.41 

37.56 

5.67 

43.23 

" 

1.31 

15 

2345 

5.13 

120.30 

34.15 

4.69 

38.84 

" 

6.VU 

4002 

5.13 

203.31 

$66.66 

$44.54 

$21.99 

CHAPTER  XX 

Poultry 

The  term  poultry  is  used  to  designate  all  birds  that  are  in  the 
nature  of  farm  animals  or  farm  live-stock,  as  chickens,  geese,  ducks, 
turkeys.     Birds  grown  merely  as  pets  or  fancy  animals,  or  to  stock 

f2/e 
'  /yo3e 
Beak 
Head 


Fig.  6. 


7<Des 

Parts  of  a  fowl. 


game  preserves,  are  not  classed  as  poultry  ;  but  when  any  of  these 
birds  come  to  be  grown  as  food  animals  (as  pigeons),  they  are  practi- 
cally included  with  other  domestic  fowls  under  the  general  denomi- 
nation of  poultry. 

365 


366 


POULTRY 


Standard  Weights  of  Poultry  in  Pounds  (Am.  Poultry  Assoc,  1910) 


Plymouth  Rocks,  all  varieties     .     . 
Wyandottes,  all  varieties  .     .     .     . 

Javas,  all  varieties 

Rhode  Island  Red 

Buckeye 

Brahma,  Light 

Dark 

Cochins,  all  varieties 

Langshans,  all  varieties      .     .     .     . 
Minorca,  Single-comb  Black  . 
Minorca,    Single-comb    White   and 

Rose-comb  Black 

White-Faced  Black  Spanish   .     .     . 

Blue  Andalusians 

Dorking,  White 

Silver-Gray 

Colored 

Redcap 

Orpingtons,  all  varieties     .... 

Houdan       

Crevecoeur 

La  Fleche 

Cornish        

White-laced  Red 

Black-breasted  Red  Malay     .     .     . 
Black-breasted  Red  Malay  Bantam 

Sebright  Bantam 

Rose-comb  Bantam 

Booted  White  Bantam       .... 

Brahma  Bantam 

Japanese  Bantam 

Polish  Bantam 

Game  Bantam 


Cock 


9.5 

8.5 

9.5 

8.5 

9.0 

12.0 

11.0 

11.0 

9.5 

9.0 

8.0 
8.0 
6.0 
7.5 
8.0 
9.0 
7.5 

10.0 
7.5 
8.0 
8.5 
9.0 
8.0 
9.0 

26  oz. 

26  oz. 

26  oz. 

26  oz. 

30  oz. 

26  oz. 

26  oz. 

22  oz. 


Cockerel 


8.0 
7.5 
8.0 
7.5 
8.0 
10.0 
9.0 
9.0 
8.0 
7.5 

6.5 
6.5 
5.0 
6.5 
7.0 
8.0 
6.0 
8.5 
6.5 
7.0 
7.5 
8.0 
7.0 
7.0 

24  oz. 

22  oz. 

22  oz. 

22  oz. 

26  oz. 

22  oz. 

22  oz. 

20  oz. 


Hen 


Turkey,  Bronze  . 

Narragansett  . 
White  Holland 

Black       .     .  . 

Buf!    .     .     .  . 

Slate   .     .     .  . 

Bourbon  Red  , 


Duck,  Pekin  . 
Aylesbury  . 
Rouen  .  . 
Cayuga  .  . 
Crested  White 
Muscovy 
Blue  Swedish 


36 
30 
28 
27 
27 
27 
30 

Adult 
Drake 

9 
9 
9 

8 

7 

10 

8 


33 
20 
20 
18 
18 
18 
22 

Young 
Drake 

8 
8 
8 
7 
6 
8 
6.5 


7.5 
6.5 
7.5 
6.5 
6.0 
9.5 
8.5 
9.5 
7.5 
7.5 

6.5 
6.5 
5.0 
6.0 
6.5 
7.0 
6.0 
8.0 
6.5 
7.0 
7.5 
7.0 
6.0 
7.0 

24  oz. 

22  oz. 

22  oz. 

22  oz. 

26  oz. 

22  oz. 

22  oz. 

20  oz. 


Leghorns,   Ancona,   Polish,   Hamburgs,   Games,    Sumatra,    Sultan, 

standard  weights 


25 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 

Adult 
Duck 


Pullet 


6.0 
5.5 
6.5 
5.0 
5.0 
8.0 
7.0 
7.0 
6.5 
6.5 

5.5 
5.5 
4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
5.0 
7.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.5 
6.0 
5.0 
5.0 

22  oz. 

20  oz. 

20  oz. 

20  oz. 

24  oz. 

20  oz. 

20  oz. 

18  oz. 
Frizzle,   r 

20 
12 
14 
12 
12 
12 
14 

Young 
Duck 

7 
7 
7 
6 
5 
6 
5.5 


SCORE-CARD 


367 


standard  Weights  of  Poultry  —  Continued 


Cock 

Cockerel 

Hen 

Pullet 

Goose,  Toulouse 

Embden 

African 

Chinese 

Candian  or  Wild 

Egyptian 

Adult 
Gander 

25 
20 
20 
12 
12 
10 

Young 
Gander 

20 
18 
16 
10 
10 
8 

Adult 
Goose 

20 
18 
18 
10 
10 
8 

Young 
Gooae 

16 
16 
14 

8 
8 
6 

Descriptive  Score-Card  for  Standard  Poultry 

American  class  (Cornell) 


Perfect  Score  | 

Section 

Defects  in  Shape 

Shape 

Color 

Symmetry    .... 

8 

Rangy,  blocky,  unbalanced. 

Weight  or  size  .     .     . 

0 

Over,  under,  undeveloped. 

Condition     .... 

4 

Not  alert,  low  vitality,  dirty,  poor,  fat. 

Head  and  beak      .     . 

3 

3 

friat,  long,  short,  narrow,  coarse. 
[Sunken,  dull,  droopy. 

Eyes 

Single  and  Pea 

Extra     points,    few     points,     uneven, 

wrinkled,   twisted,   thumbmark,   back 

Comb 

8 

slope,  coarse  texture. 
Rose 

Low   front,   hollow  center,   spike   high, 
spike  low,  spike  small. 

Wattles  and  ear  lobes  . 

2 

4 

.  Long,  irregular,  unequal,  torn,  wrinkled, 
I     coarse. 

Nppk- 

3 

6 

Long,  short,  not  arched,  hackle  undevel- 
oped, scant  at  sides,  scant  at  shoulders. 

Outside  :  High,  low,  large,  small. 

Wings 

4 

6 

\  Inside  :  Feather  out,  broken,  improperly 
folded. 

Back 

6 

6 

Roach  back,  narrow,  drooping,  deficient 

Tail 

4 

e; 

High,  low,  pinched,  sickles  short,  coverts 
scant,  feathers  out,  broken. 

Breast 

5 

5 

Narrow,  flat,  shallow. 

Body  and  fluff  .     .     . 

3 

3 

Narrow,  too  low,  tucked  up,  crooked  keel. 
Unfeathered  Varieties 

Legs  and  toes    . 

Q 

rt 

Long,  short,  feathered  stubs  or  down, 
.     knock-kneed,  thin,  crooked,  injured. 

Perfect  Score     .     .     . 

100 

368 


POULTRY 


For  Asiatic  fowls,  the  Cornell  score  runs  :  Symmetry,  8  ;  weight 
or  size,  6  ;  condition,  5  ;  head,  beak  and  eyes,  3  for  shape  and  3  for 
color  ;  comb,  8  ;  wattles  and  ear-lobes,  5  ;  neck,  4  for  shape  and  6 
for  color  ;  wings,  4  and  4,  back,  4  and  5  ;  tail, 
4  and  5  ;  breast,  5  and  5  ;  body  and  fluff,  5 
and  3  ;  legs  and  toes,  8.  (The  reader  may 
wish  to  compare  these  categories  with  scores 
for  other  live-stock  in  Chap.  XXI.) 


Eggs 

Scoring  and  judging  one  dozen  eggs  (Cornell). 

Disqualifications. — Extremes  in  size  and 
shape  ;  very  rough,  freckled  eggs  in  extras 
and  firsts,  dirty,  or  cracked  shells  ;  badly 
spotted  interior,  or  eggs  having  a  noticeably 
loose  content. 

The  entire  dozen  is  discarded  when  more 
than  two  eggs  are  disqualified. 

Eggs  weighing  one-half  ounce  more  or  less 
than  the  average  for  that  dozen  shall  be 
disqualified  for  extras  and  firsts. 

When  two  or  less  eggs  are  disqualified,  de- 
duct from  the  final  score  or  the  dozen,  8 
points  for  each  egg  disqualified.  A  disquali- 
fied egg  is  not  scored  with  the  remainder  of 
the  dozen. 

(7m^?es. —  "  Extras  "  (XXXX).  Large 
and  uniform  in  size  and  color,  weighing  26-30 
ounces  per  dozen,  and  scoring  90  points. 

"  Firsts"  (XXX).     Good  size  and  uniform 
in  size  and  color,  weighing  24-26  ounces  per 
dozen,  and  scoring  90  points. 
Weighing  20-24  ounces  per  dozen,  and  scoring 


7.  — Skeleton  of  cock. 


1,  cranium;  2,  septum  inter- 
orbitale;  3,  beak;  4,  man- 
dible; .5,  cervical  vertebrae; 
6,  scapula;  7,  humerus; 
8,  radius ;  9,  ulna ;  10.  met- 
acarpal bone;  11,  thumb 
bone;  12,  middle  finger; 
13,  third  finger;  14,  furoula 
or  wish-bone;  15,  coracoid 
bone;  16,  sternum;  17,  crest 
or  keel  of  sternum  ;  18,  ribs  ; 
i;»,  pelvis;  20,  caudal  ver- 
tebra;; 21,  femur;  22,  pa- 
tella; 23,  tibia;  24,  fibula; 
25,  metatarsus;  20,  spur; 
27,  hind  toe ;  28,  inner  toe ; 
29,  middle  toe;  30,  outer 
toe.  —  Cyrln.  Amer.  Ayric, 
after  Ellenberger. 


"  Seconds 
80  per  cent. 

"  Thirds  ' 
per  dozen. 

Each  grade  allows  the  possibility  of  a  100  per  cent  score 


'(XX) 

(X).     No  weight  clause  required 


Standard  24  ounces 


SCORE-CARDS  FOR  EGGS 


36ft 


"  Seconds  "  include  mixed  eggs  both  of  size  and  color,  but  they  must 
be  necessarily  fresh.  This  grade  would  take  ordinary  farmers'  fresh 
eggs. 

All  preserved  and  cold  storage  eggs  are  debarred  by  the  score  of 
80  per  cent  from  every  class  except  "  thirds." 

The  standard  weight  for  each  grade  shall  be  the  highest  weight 
mentioned  for  that  grade. 

Students'  score-card  for  a  dozen  eggs 


Grade 

Shape      

Color 

Condition  of  shell  .  .  . 
Appearance  at  candling  . 
Yolk,  quality  of  ...  . 
White,  quality  of  .  .  . 
Cut  for  disqualified  eggs  . 
Cut  for  under-standard 
weight 

Total  cuts     .... 

Final  score    .... 


Value 
Section 


12 
12 
12 
14 
25 
25 


1st 
Doz. 


2d 
Doz. 


3d 
Doz. 


4th 
Doz. 


5th 
Doz. 


6th 
Doz. 


Explanation  of  score-card : 

Shape.  —  The  shape  should  be  uniformly  oval  throughout  the  dozen. 

Color.  —  The  color  should  be  uniform  over  the  entire  shell  and 
throughout  the  dozen.  The  standard  should  be  a  clear,  pure  white 
for  white  eggs  and  a  rich,  dark  brown  for  brown  eggs. 

Condition  of  shell.  —  The  shell  should  be  spotlessly  clean  and  un- 
smeared  or  glossy  by  washing.  It  should  be  of  uniformly  firm  condition 
throughout,  not  twisted  or  folded. 

Appearance  at  candling.  —  The  contents  should  be  clear  and  trans- 
parent, the  yolk  being  scarcely  perceptible.  The  air  space  should  be 
very  small.  A  large  air  space  indicates  greater  age  of  the  egg,  except 
in  water  glass  eggs. 

An  egg  must  necessarily  be  broken  for  scoring  the  yolk  and  white. 

Yolk.  —  The  yolk  should  be  a  rich  golden  in  color,  and  should  keep 
its  shape  when  opened  into  a  saucer.     It  should  show  no  spots  other 
than  the  germinal  disc,  and  should  be  of  a  sweet,  agreeable  odor. 
2b 


370  POULTRY 

White.  —  The  white  or  albumen  of  the  egg  should  be  fresh,  sweet, 
clear,  and  viscous.  The  two  layers  of  albumen  should  be  of  a  distinctly 
different  consistency,  —  the  one  very  viscous,  the  other  rather  watery. 

Scale  of  cuts : 

Shape  (one  point  for  each  egg) .  —  Cut  to  the  limit  in  proportion 
to  the  defect  and  then  disqualify. 

Color  (one  point  for  each  egg).  —  Cut  to  the  limit  in  proportion  to 
the  defect  and  then  disqualify. 

Condition  of  shell  (one  point  for  each  egg).  —  One-half  point  when 
wrinkled  severely  ;  one-half  to  two  points  when  three  or  four  or  more 
are  glossy  ;  one-half  point  for  each  weak  shell  ;  one-half  to  one  point 
for  each  soiled  egg. 

Candling.  —  Cut  one-half  point  for  each  egg  showing  distinctly 
cloudy  appearance. 

Cut  one  point  for  each  egg  having  unmistakable  blood  spots. 

Cut  one-quarter  to  one-half  point  for  each  egg  showing  large  air 
space. 

Quality  of  yolk.  —  Five  points  for  each  spot  on  yolk  other  than  the 
germ  discs.  Cut  as  high  as  ten  points  when  odor  is  disagreeable.  Cut 
as  high  as  ten  points  when  yolk  flattens  and  breaks.  Cut  as  high  as 
five  points  on  a  pale  color. 

Quality  of  white.  —  Cut  as  high  as  fifteen  points  when  the  two  al- 
bumens approach  the  same  consistency.  Cut  as  high  as  five  points 
when  albumen  will  not  hold  up  the  yolk. 

Cut  one-half  point  for  each  one-half  ounce  in  weight  under  the 
standard  weight  of  the  grade  for  the  dozen.  Cut  eight  points  for  each 
disqualified  egg. 

Rules  for  Machine  Incubation   (Finch) 

Never  put  the  eggs  in  the  machine  until  the  temperature  is  properly 
regulated. 

Temperature.  — After  the  eggs  have  been  put  in  the  machine,  the 
temperature  will  drop  and  remain  low  for  some  time,  gradually  in- 
creasing, often  taking  from  twelve  to  fourteen  hours  to  reach  the  desired 
degree.  Do  not  try  to  run  the  heat  up  too  quickly.  It  is  better  that 
the  temperature  should  be  increased  gradually. 


INCUBATION  371 

After  the  correct  temperature  is  reached,  the  incubator  should  run 
with  only  slight  variations.  Although  it  is  best  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  do  so,  and  a  variation  of  one- 
half  degree,  or  more,  from  time  to  time,  will  not  result  seriously  if  the 
average  temperature  is  correct.  A  high  temperature  should  be  avoided, 
especially  at  the  beginning  of  incubation. 

The  temperature  should  be  read  through  the  glass  door.  The  door 
should  be  opened  as  little  as  possible. 

Temperature,  first  week.  —  The  position  of  the  thermometer  should 
always  be  considered  in  determining  the  proper  temperature  to  main- 
tain. If  the  thermometer  hangs  above  the  trays,  as  it  does  in  some 
machines,  thereby  registering  the  air  temperature  and  not  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  eggs,  the  actual  temperature  of  the  eggs  would  be  from 
one  to  one  and  a  half  degrees  lower  the  first  week  than  the  registered 
temperature.  To  give  the  eggs  the  proper  amount  of  heat  the  first 
week,  where  hanging  thermometers  are  used,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
temperature  at  1021°  or  103°;  whereas  with  contact  thermometers,  the 
temperature  should  be  102°.  Contact  thermometers  should  always 
be  placed  between  two  fertile  eggs. 

Temperature,  second  week.  —  The  outside  temperature  has  less 
influence  over  the  machine  temperature  after  the  first  week,  owing 
to  the  increasing  amount  of  animal  heat  given  off  by  the  growing  em- 
bryos. Machines  using  a  hanging  thermometer  should  be  held  at  103° 
F.,  while  in  those  using  contact  thermometers,  the  heat  should  be 
increased  to  103°  F. 

Temperature,  third  week.  —  Hold  the  temperature  as  near  103° 
as  possible  up  to  about  the  eighteenth  day,  when  it  may  be  allowed  to 
run  up  to  104°. 

The  eggs.  —  The  eggs  should  not  be  put  in  the  machine  until 
it  has  been  run  for  several  days  properly  regulated  and  all 
directions  have  been  followed  out  in  regard  to  setting  up,  paying 
special  attention  to  the  manufacturer's  directions  about  ventilators, 
felts,  trays,  etc. 

Incubate  eggs  of  uniform  size,  shape,  and  color  as  far  as  possible,  and 
eliminate  those  with  very  porous  or  otherwise  defective  shells. 

Eggs  from  the  heavy  type  of  fowls  usually  take  a  few  hours  longer 
to  hatch  than  Leghorn  eggs ;  therefore  it  is  not  advisable  to  set  the  two 
kinds  of  eggs  together  in  an  incubator. 


Ground  feed  in  hopper,  afternoon. 


372  POULTRY 

Feeding 

Cornell  ration  for  egg-production 

200  lb.  wheat  ) 

200  lb.  rrackod  corn  \    Grain  fed  in  deep  litter  sparinply  in  morning  and  freely 

100  11).  oats  j  at  night 

»)0  Ih.     wheat  middlings 

00  lb.     corn  meal 

.jO  lb.     berf  scraps 

M)  lb.     wheat  bran 

10  lb.     alfalfa  meal 

1 0  lb.    lin.seed  oil  meal 

7  lb.       salt  J 

Proportion  about  2  lb.  grain  to  1  lb.  ground  feed. 

Cabbage,  beets,  sprouted  oats  or  grass ;  oyster  shells ;  grit ;  water. 

Results  (1909-1910) 

Best  pullet  laid  258  eggs. 

Next  pullet  laid  253  eggs. 

Fifteen  selected  pullets,  averaged    236  (  „„_,  p-_i- 

Best  flock  pullets  averaged  182  )  ^^^^  ^^''°' 

Relation  of  food-consumption  to  egg-production  (Cornell). 

That  the  number  of  eggs  produced  bears  a  close  relationship  to  the 
amount  of  food  consumed  is  shown  in  the  chart  (Fig.  8)  A  and  B 
where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  hens  which  laid  the  largest  number  of  eggs 
in  a  .stated  period  consumed  the  most  food.  Periods  of  large  egg- 
production  always  appear  to  be  periods  of  increased  food  consump- 
tion, and  vice  versa. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  increase  in  food  consumed  precedes,  by 
a  few  weeks,  the  increase  in  production,  showing  that  the  fowl  fortifies 
her  body  by  storing  up  the  nourishment  from  which  to  produce  eggs 
(A,  B,  and  C). 

A  glance  at  the  plotted  curves,  comparing  (B),  the  weight  of  the 
fowls  during  each  period,  and  (C),  the  percentage  egg-production  for 
each  period,  will  show  how  uniformly  the  curve  expressing  increase 
and  decrease  in  production  follows  the  curve  of  increase  and  decrease 
in  weight.  The  weight  of  hen  is  greatest  preceding  heaviest  egg- 
jiroduction. 

A  comparison  of  the  amount  of  food  consumed,  the  eggs  laid,  and  the 
weight  of  flocks  of  different  ages  shows  that  the  youngest  fowls  ate 
the  most  food  and  produced  the  largest  number  of  eggs. 

The  percentage  egg-production  varies  each  month,  according  to 
the    seasons,     with     remarkable    regularity.      This     is     strikingly 


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Fig.  8.  — A  comparison  of  one-,  two-,  and  three-year-olds  per  period  of  28  days,  of 
both  starved  and  fed  fowls.  A  =  Consumption  of  food.  B  =  Weight  of  fowls. 
C  =  Percentage  egg-production.  Note  that  an  increase  or  decrease  in  weight 
is  usually  preceded  by  corresponding  increase  or  decrease  in  the  amount  of  food 
consumed  by  each  flock,  and  that  an  increase  or  decrease  in  per  cent  egg-pro- 
duction is  preceded  by  a  corresponding  increase  or  decrease  in  weight  of  each 
flock.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  there  is  great  uniformity  between  the 
various  flocks  each  period  as  to  increase  or  decrease  in  food  consumption, 
weight,  and  per  cent  egg-production.  The  transverse  chart-lines  show  upper- 
most set  starting  at  1  year,  2  years,  3  years  ;  middle  set,  3  years,  1  year,  2 
years ;  lowest  set,  1  year,  2  years,  3  years. 

373 


374  POULTRY 

illustrated  in  the  plotted  curves  of  production  during  the  sixteen 
periods  of  twenty-ciglit  days  each,  for  the  six  flocks  of  fowls  of 
different  ages  (C).  From  August  11,  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
periment, there  was  a  gradual  decline  in  production  with  all  the 
flocks  until  the  latter  part  of  December.  From  this  time  production 
increased  rapidly  until  the  latter  part  of  Aj^ril,  when  it  remained 
practically  stationary  until  the  middle  of  May  ;  then  it  declined  grad- 
ually until  the  close  of  the  experiment,  November  8. 

Preparing  Fowls  for  Market  by  Bleeding  (Graham) 

Hold  the  head  of  the  bird  with  the  left  hand,  back  of  the  head  up, 
keeping  the  hand  on  the  back  of  the  neck  to  avoid  cutting  yourself 
should  the  knife  slip  and  pass  through  the  top  of  the  head.  Take  the 
knife  in  the  right  hand,  the  back  of  the  blade  toward  your  body. 
Insert  the  blade  in  the  mouth,  keeping  the  point  to  the  right  side  of 
the  bird's  neck  and  as  near  the  outer  skin  as  possible  until  it  is  well  past 
the  neck  bone.  Then  press  the  edge  toward  the  bone  and  slowly  draw 
the  knife  from  the  mouth,  the  hand  moving  from  your  body,  so  that  the 
knife  appears  to  pass  across  the  neck.  Repeat  the  process  on  the  left 
side  of  the  neck.  This  should  cause  the  bird  to  bleed  freely,  but  by 
holding  the  beak  up  the  blood  will  remain  in  the  neck,  giving  you  plenty 
of  time  to  pierce  the  brain.  The  latter  is  located  just  above  the  eye 
and  can  be  easily  reached  through  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth  by 
using  a  stiff  steel  blade,  inserted  in  the  mouth  with  blade  edge  up  and 
pointing  slightly  over  the  eye.  With  young  birds  little  trouble  is  ex- 
l)erienced  in  piercing  the  brain,  but  with  older  birds  a  very  stiff  blade  is 
required,  as  the  bones  are  much  harder.  When  the  point  of  the  blade 
enters  the  brain,  give  the  knife  a  quick  twist  to  right  or  left  to  widen 
the  aperture.  If  the  brain  has  been  reached,  the  bird  will  attempt  to 
squawk  or  will  give  a  nervous  jerk  as  the  blade  touches  the  spot,  and 
this  touching  the  brain  or  nerves  not  only  loosens  the  feathers  of  the 
bird  for  dry  plucking,  but  will  greatly  improve  the  appearance  of  scalded 
stock. 

A  weight,  which  may  consist  of  an  old  tomato  can  half  filled  with 
stones  and  cement,  is  immediately  attached  by  means  of  a  wire  hook 
to  the  lower  mandible  of  the  bird.  Then  by  grasping  the  wings  close 
to  the  back,  the  bird  will  not  be  able  to  flutter,  and  can  be  easily  and 


TO    KEEP    EGGS  375 

rapidly  plucked.  This,  of  course,  should  always  be  done  while  the 
bird  is  bleeding.  The  can  catches  the  blood,  and  by  hanging  the  bird 
over  a  barrel  the  feathers  may  easily  be  saved. 

Care  of  Feathers  and  Eggs  (Lambert) 
Feathers. 

When  dry  picked  and  sorted  so  as  to  keep  the  stiff  from  the  soft, 
and  the  white  from  the  colored,  feathers  have  a  market  value  worth 
considering.  Mixed  colors  of  soft  chicken  feathers  bring  4|  to  10  cents 
per  pound,  and  pure  white  bring  20  cents  per  pound.  Duck  feathers 
bring  33  to  42  cents  per  pound,  goose  feathers  42  to  60  cents  per 
pound,  goose  quills  15  cents  per  pound.  Long,  bright-colored 
chicken  feathers  are  sold  for  millinery  purposes  at  about  $1  per  pound. 
The  stiff  turkey  feathers  are  in  great  demand  for  feather  dusters 
and  the  like.  Feathers  are  cured  in  sacks  of  thin  material  exposed  to 
the  sun  and  air  for  several  days.  They  can  be  sold  and  shipped  in 
these  original  sacks. 

General  care  of  eggs. 

Eggs  for  market  will  keep  better  from  spoiling  if  not  fertilized.  Those 
from  mated  pens  should  be  kept  from  heat  over  60°  Fahr.  The 
nests  should  be  kept  supplied  liberally  with  dry  sawdust  or  some  clean 
absorbent.  The  eggs  that  become  soiled  should  be  wiped  with  a  damp 
cloth  and  never  submerged  in  water  if  they  are  to  be  kept  more  than 
one  week.  The  natural  color  of  the  shell  is  not  indicative  of  the 
quality  of  the  contents,  although  the  preferences  of  the  market 
should  be  catered  to,  if  one  wishes  to  secure  best  prices.  Brown-shelled 
eggs  are  usually  larger  than  white  shelled  ones,  because  all  the 
larger  breeds  except  one  lay  brown  eggs,  or  those  from  a  delicate  pink 
to  a  light  chocolate.  The  color  of  the  yolk  is  controlled  by  feeding 
green  foods  and  certain  grains.  Eggs  are  porous  and  susceptible 
to  taint  from  bad  odors.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  them  in  clean, 
cool  places.  Marking  the  shells  in  any  way  is  not  desirable.  Cartons 
holding  one  dozen  eggs  can  be  purchased  from  paper  dealers.  These 
have  specially  printed  covers,  "  One  Dozen  Fresh  Eggs,"  etc., 
and  can  be  used  several  times  if  desired.  Cases  holding  fifteen 
or  thirty  dozen  each,  for  shipping   to  the   trade,  are  popular  sizes. 


376  POULTRY 

Deliveries  and  shipments  should  be  made  each  week  ;  if  a  private  trade, 
on  the  same  day  of  each  week.  There  are  wire  fillers  for  the  cartons 
that  display  the  eggs  very  attractively,  but  require  more  time  in  plac- 
ing the  eggs  and  removing  them  from  the  trays.  With  the  straw- 
board  fillers,  each  egg  is  in  a  separate  compartment,  and  there  is  little 
danger  of  breakage.  If  one  becomes  cracked,  the  leakage  is  usually 
confined  to  the  one  compartment. 

Eggs  intended  for  cold  storage  must  be  absolutely  fresh,  free  from 
dirt,  and  i)acked  in  standard-size  thirty-dozen  cases  ;  and  the  fillers 
must  be  free  from  mold,  dirt,  or  odors  of  any  kind.  Cold-storage  plants 
begin  operations  as  soon  as  the  lower  prices  are  reached,  about  April 
1,  and  continue  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  During  warm  weather 
the  quality  of  eggs  deteriorates,  and  they  do  not  keep  so  well  as  when 
cooler.  The  market  for  these  cold-storage  goods  opens  in  the  fall  and 
continues  until  Christmas. 

Eggs  should  be  gathered  every  day,  and  all  broody  hens  removed 
from  the  house.  If  a  nest  is  found  in  an  unusual  place,  the  eggs  should 
be  tested  before  a  bright  light,  and  the  unclear  ones  discarded. 

Preserving  eggs. 

There  are  several  methods  of  preserving  eggs  during  spring  and 
summer  and  keeping  them  wholesome  until  they  will  bring  higher 
prices,  but  none  by  which  they  can  be  kept  any  length  of  time  and  sold 
as  fresh-laid  ones.  The  shells  may  be  covered  with  melted  paraffin  or 
vaseline  to  prevent  evaporation,  and  they  will  not  spoil  so  long  as  they 
are  kept  cool  and  turned  every  few  days.  Packing  in  common  salt  and 
turning  occasionally  is  another  method.  The  contents  remain  sweet 
and  wholesome,  but  the  all)umen  will  not  beat  up  as  it  will  in  fresh- 
laid  ones.  The  shell  will  lose  its  freshness,  and  the  eggs  will  not  remain 
good  long  after  being  taken  out  of  the  preservatives,  and  they  should 
be  designated  as  preserved  eggs  when  oiTered  for  sale. 

The  best  method  of  preservation  is  as  follows  :  One  part  of 
water-glass  (sodium  silicate)  mixed  with  nine  parts  of  boiled  spring 
water.  Put  the  eggs  in  a  .stoneware  crock  when  gathered  from  the  nests, 
if  cool  and  clean,  until  the  crock  is  nearly  full  ;  then  pour  in  the  water- 
glass  solution  until  there  is  at  least  two  inches  of  licjuid  over  the  top 
layer  of  eggs.  Keep  in  a  cool  place.  If  carefully  done,  this  method 
is  reliable. 


PRESERVING    EGGS  —  HEN    LICE  377 

Another  successful  method  is  to  slake  two  pounds  of  good  lump  lime, 
and  while  hot  add  one  pound  of  common  salt.  After  cooling,  add  ten 
quarts  of  boiled  spring  water  and  stir  thoroughly  several  times  the 
first  day.  Then  let  it  settle,  using  only  the  clear  liquid,  which  may  be 
poured  over  the  eggs  after  they  have  been  placed  in  a  stoneware  crock; 
or  the  liquid  can  first  be  put  in  the  crock  and  the  eggs  put  in  that,  day 
by  day,  when  gathered.  The  eggs  must  always  be  two  inches  below 
surface.  More  of  the  solution  can  be  put  in  when  necessary.  Stone- 
ware vessels  are  the  most  desirable  ones  for  keeping  these  mixtures  in. 

Eggs  are  sometimes  removed  from  the  shells,  canned,  and  kept  in 
cold  storage  or  frozen,  and  sold  to  large  consumers.  The  most  whole- 
some method  is  evaporation.  The  egg  is  then  reduced  to  powder 
that  will  keep  any  length  of  time,  in  any  climate,  and  can  be  carried 
to  places  where  poultry-keeping  is  out  of  the  question  and  where  all  eat- 
ables carried  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  weight. 

Parasites  of  Fowls  (Crosby) 

Hen  Louse  (Menopon  pallidum).  —  There  are  several  species  of 
lice  infesting  poultry,  of  which  this  is  the  commonest.  When  full 
grown,  it  is  over  one  twenty-fifth  inch  in  length,  slender,  and  of  a 
pale  straw-yellow  color.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  feathers  near  the 
base.  The  lice  do  not  suck  blood,  but  run  actively  over  the  body 
and  feed  on  the  dried  skin  and  feathers,  but  in  so  doing  irritate  the 
skin  with  their  sharp  claws. 

Treatment. — Keep  poultry  in  clean,  airy,  well-lighted  houses,  and 
use  perches  and  nest  boxes  that  can  be  removed  easily.  Spray 
perches,  nest  boxes,  and  the  whole  interior  of  the  house  either  with 
a  2  per  cent  solution  of  cresol  disinfecting  soap  (formula  page  436) 
or  with  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  crude  carbolic  acid  and  three  parts 
kerosene.  The  application  should  be  repeated  in  about  a  week  to 
kill  any  lice  that  may  have  escaped  before.  To  free  the  fowls  of  lice, 
brush  the  powder  (see  formula,  p.  436)  in  among  the  feathers  about 
vent,  fluff,  and  under  wings.     Repeat  in  two  weeks  in  extreme  cases. 

Chicken  Mite  (Dermamjssus  gallinoe).  —  Minute  grayish  or  red- 
dish mites  which  attack  poultry,  mostly  at  night,  and  suck  their 
blood.  During  the  day  they  hide  in  cracks  and  crevices  about  the 
perches  and  nests. 


378  POULTRY 

Treatment.  —  Keep  the  houses  clean  as  directed  above.  Supply  the 
fowls  with  a  dust  bath  and  separate  sitting  hens,  which  are  especially 
liable  to  infestation,  from  the  rest  of  the  flock. 

Scaly  Leg  {Sarcoptes  jmitans).  —  A  disease  caused  by  minute  mites 
working  beneath  the  scales  on  the  feet  and  legs.  The  irritation  causes 
the  secretion  of  a  fluid  which  on  drying  turns  to  a  whitish  powder 
beneath  the  scales  and  raises  them  from  their  natural  position.  Crusts 
or  scabs  are  formed,  and  the  fowls  become  lame. 

Treatment.  —  Isolate  infested  birds  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the 
disease.  Carefully  remove  the  crusts  by  soaking  in  warm  water  and 
soap  and  apply  carbolic  ointment  or  a  mixture  of  creosote  and  lard 
(1  to  20).     Disinfect  the  house  as  directed  on  preceding  page. 

Depluming  Scabies  {Sarcoptes  Icevis).  —  Minute  mites  working 
at  the  base  of  the  feathers,  causing  them  to  break  at  the  surface  of  the 
body.  The  mites  also  set  up  an  irritation  which  causes  the  birds  to 
pull  out  their  own  feathers. 

Treatment.  —  The  disease  is  contagious,  and  infested  birds  should 
be  isolated.  Apply  creosote  and  lard  (1  to  20),  or  dust  fresh  Buhach 
into  the  feathers. 

Hen  Fleas  {Argopsylla  gallinacea).  —  In  the  South  these  fleas  are 
very  annoying  to  fowls,  especially  to  sitting  hens.  They  attach  them- 
selves in  great  numbers  to  the  face,  comb,  etc.,  where  they  remain  until 
ready  to  lay  eggs. 

Treaimeni.  —  The  same  measures  are  advised  as  for  lice  and  mites. 

Chicken  Tick  (Argas  miniatus).  —  A  reddish  brown  tick,  some- 
what larger  than  the  common  bedbug,  infesting  poultry  in  the  South. 

Treatment.  —  Keep  the  houses  thoroughly  clean,  and  disinfect  at 
frequent  intervals. 

Sample  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  Exhibition  of  Poultry 

Ontario  (N.  Y.)  Poultry  Association,  1911. 

1.  All  entries  must  be  made  on  blanks  furnished  by  the  Secretary, 
and  all  remittances  should  be  made  payable  to  the  Secretary,  and  should 
be  made  by  P.O.  money  order,  express  money  order,  or  registered 
letter. 

2.  Labels  will  be  sent  to  each  exhibitor  ;  the  reverse  side  must  have 
the  sender's  name  and  address  legibly  written  thereon,  and  the  name  of 


EXHIBITION    RULES  379 

the  express  company  for  their  return  delivery.  If  from  accident  the 
Association  labels  do  not  arrive  in  time,  send  exhibits  without  them, 
and  the  Secretary  will  make  duplicates.  Unhealthy  specimens  will  not 
be  exhibited,  but  will  be  returned  to  the  owners  at  their  expense.  When 
more  than  one  specimen  is  sent  in  the  coop,  each  entry  must  be  properly, 
divided  and  separately  labeled. 

3.  Entries  will  positively  close  Monday,  January  9,  1911,  but  should 
be  sent  as  long  before  that  date  as  possible.  This  rule  will  be  strictly 
adhered  to.  The  building  will  be  open  for  the  reception  of  specimens 
at  8  A.M.,  Monday,  January  16,  and  those  not  received  by  8  a.m.,  Tues- 
day, Januar}^  17,  will  be  debarred  from  competition. 

4.  All  specimens  shall  be  exhibited  in  their  natural  condition,  with 
the  exception  of  Games  and  Game  Bantams.  Any  violation  of  this 
rule  shall  exclude  the  specimen  from  competing  and  cause  the  with- 
holding of  all  premiums  awarded  the  owner  of  such  birds. 

5.  The  reports  of  judges  shall  be  made  in  writing  to  the  Secretary, 
and  will  be  final  after  having  been  approved  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee. As  soon  as  possible  after  the  awards  of  the  judges  have  been 
supervised  and  approved,  a  card  or  badge  stating  the  premium  will  be 
placed  on  each  winning  coop,  where  it  must  remain  until  the  close  of 
the  show,  and  each  winning  exhibitor  will  be  notified  by  postal  card 
at  once. 

6.  The  judges  are  strictly  prohibited  from  making  known  their 
awards,  except  through  the  Secretary  or  Superintendent.  Any  person 
attempting  to  interfere  with  the  judges  in  their  decisions,  by  letter 
or  otherwise,  will  be  excluded  from  competition  and  exhibition. 

7.  No  protests  against  awards  will  be  received  unless  accompanied 
by  a  deposit  of  $2,  and  if  after  the  matter  has  been  thoroughly  in- 
vestigated by  the  Show  Committee,  the  protest  should  prove  to  be 
without  foundation,  the  deposit  will  be  forfeited  to  the  Association. 
Protests  must  be  made  before  6  p.m.,  Wednesday,  January  18,  1911, 
and  must  be  made  in  writing. 

8.  All  display  premiums  in  the  open  classes,  unless  otherwise  stated, 
will  be  decided  thus  :  First  Prize  to  count  6  points  ;  Second  Prize,  4 
points  ;  Third  Prize,  3  points ;  Fourth  Prize,  2  points  ;  Fifth  Prize, 
1  point. 

9.  Season  tickets  will  be  issued  free  of  charge  to  all  exhibitors  whose 
entry  fee  amounts  to  $2  ;  single  admission  tickets,  25  cents  ;  tickets  for 


380  POULTRY 

children  above  eight  years  and  under  fifteen  years  of  age,  15 
cents.  Exhibitors'  tickets  are  not  transferable,  and  will  be  forfeited 
if  presentetl  by  any  one  but  the  owner.  Season  tickets  will  be  sold 
for  SI. 

10.  Xo  specimens  will  be  allowed  in  the  hall  except  those  which 
have  been  duly  entered  in  the  books  of  the  Association  and  the  entry 
fee  and  express  charges  paid. 

11.  The  Association  will  be  pleased  to  undertake  the  sale  of  birds  for 
the  exhibitor,  free  of  charge,  selling  price  to  be  stated  on  entry  blank. 
All  sales  must  be  reported  at  the  office  at  once. 

12.  During  the  exhibition  no  specimens  can  be  removed  except  by 
order  of  the  Secretary.  Any  fowl  showing  disease  will  be  removed 
and  cared  for. 

13.  No  one  will  be  allowed  in  the  aisle  while  judging  is  in  progress, 
except  by  permit  from  the  Superintendent. 

14.  The  term  "  Cock  "  means  hatched  prior  to  1910  ;  the  term 
''  Hen  "  means  hatched  prior  to  1910  ;  the  term  "  Cockerel  "  means 
hatched  during  1910,  and  the  term  ''  Pullet  "  means  hatched  during 
1910. 

15.  Prizes  in  cash,  special  prizes,  ribbons,  etc.,  for  all  exhibits  will 
be  awarded.  Blue  Ribbon  for  First  Prize,  Red  for  Second,  Yellow  for 
Third,  and  Green  for  Fourth.  Lost  prize  ribbons  will  be  duplicated 
at  15  cents  each. 

16.  The  entry  fee  for  poultry,  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  etc.,  in  competi- 
tion is  50  cents,  exhibition  pens,  $1.25,  pigeons  and  pet  stock,  25 
cents  each.  This  includes  coop,  feed,  and  attendance.  All  specimens 
entered  for  competition  must  be  shown  in  coops  provided  by  the 
.^Association. 

17.  The  Association  reserves  the  right  to  place  more  than  one  bird 
of  the  same  variety  and  belonging  to  the  same  exhibitor  in  one  coop. 

IS.  There  must  in  all  cases,  whether  competing  as  pens  or  single 
birds,  be  four  entries,  or  first  prize  will  be  awarded  and  second 
money  paid,  or  if  the  birds  are  not  worthy  of  first  prize  and  gain 
second  prize,  they  will  be  awarded  third,  etc.  In  no  case  will 
more  than  the  entry  fee  be  paid  on  any  variety  containing  only 
one  entry. 

Four  entries  means  four  birds  of  the  same  kind  and  variety,  as  four 
cocks,  four  hens,  etc.,  whether  shown  by  one  person  or  several. 


SCORING    A    POULTRY    FARM  38} 

Outline  for  Critical  Examination  of  a  Poultry  Farm  (Rice) 

Visit  the  farm  and  make  careful  observations  to  secure  answers  to  the  follow- 
ing questions :  — 

Part  I  —  The  location 

1.  Where  is  the  farm  located  ? 

(a)  State (6)  County (c)  Town 

2.  What  are  the  climatic  conditions  ? 

(a)   Temperature  :  Max Min Mean 

(6)   Season  of  frost :  Early Late 

(c)  Rainfall :  Max Min Mean 

(d)  Sunshine  :  Max Min Mean 

(e)  Prevailing  winds : 

(/)    Amount  of  snow  (season  of  bare  ground)  : 
{g)  As  influencing  egg  production. 

As  influencing  crop  production. 

As  influencing  number  of  labor  days. 

As  influencing  cost  of  buildings. 

3.  What  are  the  market  conditions  ? 

(a)   Name  principal  market  or  markets. 

(6)  Population. 

(c)   Distance  from  local  station. 

id)  Express  rate  on  eggs  (30  doz.)  ;  dressed  poultry  (100  lb.) ;  live  poultry 

(100  lb.), 
(e)  Freight  rate  (per  ton  feed). 
if)    Passenger  rate  ;   frequency  of  train  service. 
(g)  Commercial  importance  as  regards  kind  and  type  of  customers. 

4.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  roads  ? 
(a)   Dirt,  stone,  etc. 

(&)   Grades. 

(c)  Distance  from  farm  (a)  R.R.  Station. 

(6)  Express, 
(c)  Post  office. 
{d)  Church. 

(d)  Free  or  toll. 

(e)  How  kept  in  repair. 

5.  What  is  the  size  of  the  farm  ? 

6.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  farm  ?     (Make  sketch.) 

7.  What  are  the  topographical  conditions  regarding : 
(a)   General  direction  of  slope  of  the  land  ? 

(6)  Air  drainage  ? 

(c)  Contour  as  affecting  location  of  buildings? 

(d)  Shelter  from  prevailing  winds  ? 

(e)  Altitude. 

8.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  soil  as  regards : 
(a)   Fertility. 

(6)   Drainage  —  natural artificial 

9.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  farm  as  regards  weeds,  stone,  stumps,  old 

fences,  etc.  ? 

10.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  farm  as  regards  healthfulness  ? 

11.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  water  supply? 
(a)   Quantity. 

{h)   Quality. 

(c)  How  secured. 

12.  What  are  the  existing  crops  ? 

(a)  Timber  —  kind,  size,  and  condition. 
(h)  Orchards  —  kind,  size,  and  condition, 
(c)  Field  crops  —  kind,  siae,  and  condition. 


382  POULTRY 

13.  What  are  the  educational  advantages? 
(a)   Distance  from  school  ? 

(6)   Size  and  kind  ? 

14.  What  are  the  reliRious  and  social  advantages? 
(a)   Denomination  ? 

(6)   Distance  from  church  ? 

(c)  Character  and  progressiveness  of  people  ? 

(d)  Organizations  —  Granges,  farm  clubs,  poultry  associations,  coopera- 

tive associations,  etc. 
{e)   Kind  of  neighbors  and  distance  from  residence. 

15.  What  are  the  neigborhood  conveniences  —  Telephone,  R.F.D.  of  mail. 

Part  II  —  Arrangement  and  nature  of  buildings 

16.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  farm  showing  the  approximate  location  of  all  build- 

ings, fences,  fields,  and  crops. 

17.  Give  dimensions  of  main  building,  and  make  sketch  showing  (a)  front  and 

(6)  end  elevation ;    (c)  floor  plan,  (d)  state  kind  of  materials  used  in  con- 
struction, (e)  square  feet  floor  space,  (/)  cubic  feet  air  space. 

18.  What  kind  or  kinds  of  la^nng  houses  are  used  ?     Take  measurements,  and 

make  front  and  end  elevation  and  floor  plan  sketches. 

19.  Estimate  square  feet  floor  space  and  cubic  feet  air  space. 

20.  State  kind  of  material  used  in  construction  of  sides,  roof,  floor,  p,nd  founda- 

tion. 

21.  Give  dimensions  of  incubator  cellar  and  nature  of  construction,  and  esti- 

mate square  feet  floor  space  and  cubic  feet  air  space. 

22.  Give   number   and    dimensions   of    brooder   houses,  and    make   sketches 

showing  end  and  front  elevations  and  floor  plan,  and  estimate  square  feet 
floor  space  and  cubic  feet  air  space. 

23.  Give  number  and  dimensions  of  fattening  houses,  and  make  sketches  show- 

ing end  and  front  elevations  and  floor  plan,  and  estimate  square  feet 
floor  space  and  cubic  feet  air  space. 

24.  Give  number  and  dimensions  of  barn  or  other  auxiliary  buildings,  and  make 

sketches  showing  end  and  front  elevations  and  floor  plan,  and  estimate 
square  feet  floor  space  and  cubic  feet  air  space. 

25.  Make  sketch  and  brief  description  of  residence,  giving  principal  dimensions, 

number  of  rooms,  etc. 

Part  III  —  Equipments 

26.  Name  all  the  more  important  machinery  and  equipment  used  on  the  farm. 

27.  State  kind  and  capacity  of  incubators. 

28.  State  kind  and  capacity  of  outdoor  brooders. 

Part  IV  —  Live-stock 

29.  State  kind  and  quantity  of  live  stock : 


Mature  fowls 

Mature  males 

(a)  Fowls 

Pullets 

Cockerels 

Young  Chicks 

(b)  Ducks. 

(c)  Geese. 

(d)   Turkeys. 

(e)   Guineas. 

(/)    Horses. 

(g)  Cows. 

(h)  Swine. 

(i)    Sheep. 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Exhibiting  and  Judging  Live-stock.     Market  Grades 

It  is  intended  in  this  chapter  to  give  a  sample  plan  for  the  adminis- 
tering of  a  live-stocli  exhibition,  standards  to  aid  in  the  making  of 
j  udgments  of  the  qualities  of  animals,  and  a  view  of  a  few  regulations 
governing  the  grading  of  animals  and  animal  products  in  the  markets. 
This  is  comparable,  in  a  way,  with  Chapter  IX  for  plants  and  plant 
products. 

General  Rules  and  Regulations  Governing  Exhibits  of  Live-stock 

(Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  slightly  modified.) 

Competition  open  to  the  world,  except  where  otherwise  specified. 

Receiving  exhibits. 

1.  All  animals  for  competition  and  exhibition,  except  speed  horses, 
having  first  been  properly  entered  within  the  time  specified  in  the  rules, 
must  be  placed  in  proper  position  by  the  first  day  of  fair  at  9  o'clock 
A.M.  Exhibits  not  in  position  by  the  time  required  will  be  positively 
excluded  from  competition. 

2.  Entries  in  the  several  departments  must  be  received  by  the  Secre- 
tary fifteen  days  before  the  opening  of  the  Fair. 

Entries  of  animals. 

3.  All  entries  of  animals  must  specify  the  owners'  names,  and  the  name, 
age,  sex,  record  number  (if  any),  and  description  of  every  animal  offered  ; 
ages  of  horses  to  date  from  the  first  of  January  of  the  year  foaled  ; 
ages  of  other  animals,  except  cattle,  to  be  considered  in  months  and  days 
at  date  of  fair,  basing  dates  of  dairy  cattle  to  be  February  1  and 
August  1,  while  in  the  beef  breeds  the  basing  date  shall  be  September  1. 
A  breeder  is  held  to  be  the  owner  of  the  female  at  the  time  of  service. 

383 


384  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

All  entries  of  live-stock  must  positively  be  made  on  the   regulation 
entry  blanks,  which  will  be  furnished  upon  application  to  the  Secretary. 

4.  Entries  must  be  made  in  the  names  of  bona  fide  owners.  Should 
any  be  found  to  be  otherwise  entered,  they  will  forfeit  any  premiums 
awarded  by  the  judges. 

5.  An  animal  entered  for  exhibition  in  one  class  cannot  compete 
for  a  premium  in  any  other,  except  where  specified. 

6.  A  single  animal  may  be  exhibited  as  one  of  a  pair  or  herd. 

7.  All  animals  shall  be  exhibited  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  award- 
ing judges. 

Recording  entries. 

8.  On  receipt  of  entries  of  live-stock,  cards  will  be  made  out  indicat- 
ing the  books,  entry  numbers,  and  classes,  and  will  be  ready  for  delivery 
by  the  superintendents  of  the  appropriate  departments  when  exhibitors 
arrive  on  the  grounds,  or  will  be  sent  by  mail  when  specially  requested. 

Delivery  of  animals. 

9.  Exhibitors  must  see  to  the  delivery  of  their  animals  to  the  super- 
intendent of  the  appropriate  department,  and  to  placing  them  in 
position  under  his  direction.  The  buildings  and  grounds  will  be  in  com- 
plete readiness  for  the  reception  of  exhibits  during  the  entire  week 
previous  to  the  opening  of  the  Fair,  and  it  will  greatly  facilitate  arrange- 
ments if  exhibitors  will  early  take  in  hand  the  preparation  for  the  dis- 
play of  their  exhibits. 

A  place  is  provided  for  storing  boxes,  crates,  and  the  like,  all  of  which 
must  be  promptly  removed  from  the  buildings  to  this  place  of  storing. 

Removal  of  animals. 

10.  Live-stock,  other  than  speed  horses,  may  be  removed  the  last 
day  of  the  Fair,  at  4  o'clock  p.m.  Speed  horses  may  be  removed  any 
time  after  their  racing  engagements. 

Protection  of  animals. 

11.  The  Fair  Board  will  take  every  precaution  in  its  power  for  the 
safe  preservation  of  stock  on  exhibition,  after  its  arrival  and  arrangement 
on  the  grounds,  but  will  not  be  responsible  for  any  loss  or  damage  that 
may  occur. 


RULES   FOR   LIVE-STOCK  EXHIBITS  385 

Register  number  of  animals. 

12.  Persons  exhibiting  pure-bred  animals,  one  year  of  age  and  over, 
will  be  required  to  furnish  register  number  of  animals  to  be  exhibited, 
or,  in  case  of  younger  animals  not  registered,  the  names  and  register 
number  of  sires  and  dams. 

Animals  exhibited  as  breeders. 

13.  Evidence  satisfactory  to  the  members  in  charge,  or  the  Award- 
ing Judges,  will  be  required  that  the  animals  exhibited  as  breeders  are 
not  barren,  and  no  awards  of  premiums  shall  be  made  where  there  is 
unsoundness  in  breeding  animals,  which  is  transmissible. 

Interference  with  judges. 

14.  No  person  other  than  the  judges,  except  the  officers  of  the  Fair 
Board,  the  superintendent,  and  the  grooms  in  charge,  will  be  permitted 
to  go  into  the  rings  where  the  stock  is  being  passed  upon  by  the  Award- 
ing Judges,  and  no  exhibitor  or  other  person  will  be  allowed  to  inter- 
fere or  communicate  with  the  judges  of  live-stock  during  the  adjudica- 
tions. If  j  udges  desire  information  from  exhibitors  or  others  concerning 
animals  on  exhibit,  they  will  make  the  fact  known  and  call  for  such  ex- 
planation or  information  as  may  be  necessary  in  the  case.  A  violation 
of  this  rule  will  disqualify  exhibitors  from  competing,  or  subject  them 
to  a  forfeiture  of  any  premium  that  may  have  been  awarded. 

Disrespect  to  awards  or  judges. 

15.  If  any  disrespect  is  shown  to  an  award  or  to  the  Awarding  Judges, 
by  the  exhibitor  or  his  agent,  he  shall  forfeit  all  awards  made  to  him,  and 
the  member  in  charge  shall  report  the  same  promptly  to  the  Secretary. 

False  evidence. 

16.  Should  a  premium  be  found  to  have  been  obtained  by  false 
evidence  or  misrepresentation,  or  a  violation  of  any  of  the  rules  of  the 
Board,  it  will  be  withheld. 

Animals  entering  the  ring. 

17.  Horses  and  cattle  can  enter  the  arenas  only  under  halter  unless 
otherwise  specified,  and  in  charge  of  grooms,  and  sheep  and  swine  only 
in  charge  of  attendants. 

2c 


386  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING    LIVE-STOCK 

Premiums  indicated. 

18.  Horses,  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep  will  be  exhibited  in  the  arenas 
of  ample  capacity,  and  the  premium  ribbons  attached  or  delivered  by 
the  judges  before  the  animals  leave  the  arenas.  First  premium,  blue  ; 
second  premium,  red  ;  third  premium,  white  ;  fourth  premium,  yellow; 
fifth  premium,  green;  Championship,  purple  ;  Reserve  Championship, 
pink  ;  Grand  Championship,  royal  purple  rosette. 

Protests. 

19.  Protests  against  awards  in  any  of  the  departments  of  the  Fair 
must  be  made  in  writing,  clearly  setting  forth  the  grounds  for  protest, 
and  must  be  filed  with  the  Secretary  not  later  than  one  day  after  the 
awards  are  made.  All  protests  will  be  considered  by  the  Board  at  its 
first  meeting  succeeding  the  Fair,  unless  otherwise  ordered.  Parties 
interested  will  be  duly  notified,  and  opportunity  given  them  to  sub- 
mit evidence.  Premiums  on  protested  animals  will  be  withheld  until 
the  protests  are  decided. 

Animals  not  entered. 

20.  A  charge  of  double  the  regular  fee  will  be  made  for  each  stall  or 
pen  occupied  by  animals  not  entered  for  premium  competition. 

Advertising. 

21.  Exhibitors  will  not  be  permitted  to  attract  attention  to  their  ex- 
hibits by  means  of  perambulating  advertisers,  or  any  method  tending 
to  objectionable  noise  and  confusion.  The  promiscuous  distribution  of 
hand-bills  or  other  advertising  matter  is  strictly  prohibited,  and  no 
tacking  or  posting  of  advertising  bills  or  cards  will  be  permitted  on  or 
in  any  of  the  buildings.  Exhibitors  may  advertise  at  and  distribute 
from  their  places  of  exhibit  only. 

Judges. 

22.  Expert  judges,  appointed  by  the  Board,  will  report  to  the  Sec- 
retary, and  he  will  direct  them  to  the  members  in  charge  of  the  depart- 
ments in  which  they  are  to  serve. 

23.  No  person  who  is  an  exhibitor  can  act  as  judge,  or  in  any  other 
capacity,  in  the  department  in  which  he  exhibits,  or  upon  stock  in 
which  he  has  an  interest. 


RULES  FOR   LIVE-STOCK  EXHIBITS  387 

24.  When  animals  are  not  deemed  worthy,  judges  will  refuse  to 
award  premiums,  whether  or  not  there  be  competition  in  the  classes. 

25.  Animals  for  which  no  premiums  are  offered,  but  which  in  the 
opinion  of  the  judges  deserve  special  commendation,  will  be  so  re- 
ported, but  premium  cards  or  ribbons  must  not  be  attached. 

26.  If  there  be  any  question  as  to  the  regularity  of  an  entry  or  the 
right  of  an  animal  to  compete  in  a  given  class,  the  judge  shall  report 
the  same  to  the  member  in  charge  for  adjustment. 

27.  Judges  in  the  several  departments,  when  requested,  may  give  the 
reasons  for  their  decisions,  embracing  the  valuable  and  desirable  qual- 
ities of  the  animals  to  which  the  premiums  are  awarded.  As  the 
one  great  object  of  the  Board  is  to  collect  valuable  information  upon 
subjects  connected  with  agriculture  and  the  industrial  arts,  the 
several  judges  and  superintendents  are  requested  to  gather  all  the  in- 
formation possible  from  exhibitors  in  their  respective  departments,  and 
make  their  report  as  complete  as  circumstances  will  permit.  Reports 
of  awards  are  to  be  made  to  the  members  in  charge  as  clearly'  as  pos- 
sible after  the  adjudications. 

Payment  of  premiums. 

28.  Premiums  are  payable  in  cash  (check)  except  when  cups,  medals, 
or  diplomas  are  specified  or  desired  in  lieu  of  cash.  Medals  and  di- 
plomas will  be  forwarded  as  directed,  to  the  proper  person,  by  the  Sec- 
retary. Speed  premiums  will  be  paid  on  the  last  day  of  the  Fair,  and 
all  other  premiums  will  be  paid  within  fifteen  days  after  the  close  of  the 
Fair,  or  at  the  time  stated. 

All  premiums  awarded,  and  not  called  for  during  the  calendar  year 
in  which  awards  are  made,  will  be  forfeited. 

Exhibition  and  examination. 

29.  Examination  by  the  judges  for  premium  awards  will  begin  in 
each  of  the  live-stock  departments  at  9  o'clock  a.m.  of  the  day  named 
for  showing,  except  special  classes  as  noted,  and  the  judges  will  pro- 
ceed in  the  order  directed  by  the  members  in  charge  of  the  departments. 

Forfeiture  of  space. 

30.  When  space  has  been  assigned  to  any  exhibitor,  the  member 
in  charge  shall  have  the  right,  in  case  the  exhibitor  shall  fail  to  make 


388  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

or  maintain  a  creditable  display,  to  declare  the  space  assigned,  or  any 
portion  thereof,  forfeited.  Exhibitors  must  arrange  their  exhibits  in 
as  neat  and  attractive  a  manner  as  possible,  in  default  of  which  the 
member  in  charge  will  report  the  entries  to  the  Secretar}"  for  cancel- 
lation, and  require  the  removal  of  the  stock  at  the  expense  of  the  ex- 
hibitor. 

Signs  and  arrangements  of  exhibits. 

31.  The  members  in  charge  of  the  several  departments  shall  have 
the  right  to  prescribe  the  dimensions  and  to  regulate  the  positions  of 
all  signs,  and  generally  to  direct  the  arrangement  of  exhibits,  so  far  as 
the  same  may  be  necessary  to  secure  harmony  and  to  be  attractive  in 
appearance. 

Straw  and  feed. 

32.  Arrangements  will  be  made  with  a  responsible  party  to  furnish 
straw,  hay,  corn,  oats,  and  chopped  feed  on  the  grounds  at  market 
prices,  in  quantities  to  suit  the  purchasers. 

Regulation  for  helpers. 

33.  The  members  in  charge  of  the  several  departments  will  issue  free 
daily  admission  tickets  to  such  helpers  as  are  necessary  and  actually 
under  pay  in  caring  for  or  operating  exhibits.  A  list  of  such  helpers 
must  be  furnished  to  the  superintendents  of  the  departments,  on  arrival 
of  exhibits  at  the  buildings  or  grounds. 

Special  rules  governing  horses. 

34.  Entries  must  be  made  fifteen  days  before  the  fair  opens,  and  be 
accompanied  by  proper  fees  to  cover  charges  for  exhibitor's  ticket  and 
stall  rent.  Exhibitors  are  requested  to  specify  the  number  of  stalls 
required,  upon  receipt  of  which  information  stalls  will  be  assigned  and 
their  numbers  sent  to  the  person  or  firm  making  entries. 

35.  Charges   for   stalls. 

Box  stall $4.00 

Open  stall 2.00 

Pony  stall 1(^0 

Exhibitor's  ticket 2.00 

36.  The  published  order  of  exhibition  will  be  conformed  to  as  nearly 
as  possible  ;    provided,  however,  the  right  is  reserved  to  make  such 


RULES  FOR  LIVE-STOCK  EXHIBITS  389 

changes  in  the  order  of  exhibition,  as  in  the  discretion  of  the  mem- 
ber in  charge  will  facilitate  the  work. 

37.  The  superintendent  of  each  department  must  check  the  entries 
shown  in  the  entry  books  in  each  ring,  with  the  exhibits  present,  and 
so  mark  the  entry  books  that  they  will  show  what  animals  were  passed 
on  by  the  judges. 

38.  The  member  in  charge  may  exclude  from  competition  exhib-. 
itors  who  occasion  unnecessary  or  embarrassing  delay  in  bringing  ani- 
mals into  the  show  ring. 

39.  The  judges  shall  not  make  any  award  where  there  is  unsound- 
ness in  breeding  animals  which  is  transmissible. 

40.  All  breeding  animals  must  be  recorded  in  Standard  Stud  Books, 
and  exhibitors  must  be  prepared  to  submit  certificates  or  registry. 

^      ,.  .  Speed  classes  —  trotting  and  racing 

Conditions. 

41.  Entries  will  close  the  tenth  day  before  the  Fair  opens  at  11 
o'clock  P.M.  Records  made  within  fifteen  days  no  bar.  Entrance 
fee  five  per  cent  of  purse,  with  five  per  cent  additional  from  winners. 
The  same  horse  entered  in  more  than  one  class  will  only  be  required 
to  pay  entrance  for  the  starts  made,  except  if  no  starts  are  made  the 
fee  in  each  class  entered  may  be  required. 

42.  Five  entries  and  three  starters  required.  Horses  will  be  called 
at  1  o'clock  P.M.  daily. 

43.  Races  will  be  mile  heats,  three  in  five,  to  harness,  and  will  be 
conducted  under  the  rules  of  the  National  Trotting  Association  (or 
American  Trotting  Association). 

44.  Heats  in  each  day's  races  may  be  trotted  or  paced  alternately. 
The  published  order  of  program  will  be  followed  as  nearly  as  possible, 
but  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  reserves  the  right  to  make  modi- 
fications, in  the  discretion  of  the  member  in  charge  of  the  speed  depart- 
ment, to  meet  conditions  as  they  arise.  Usual  weather  clause  rights 
reserved. 

45.  A  horse  distancing  the  field,  or  any  part  thereof,  will  receive  but 
one  premium. 

46.  All  premiums  for  speed  classes  will  be  paid  on  the  last  day  of  the 
Fair,  by  bank  check  payable  to  the  order  of  the  owner  or  the  party 
in  whose  name  the  entry  is  made. 


390  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

47.  The  race  track  will  be  placed  in  the  best  possible  condition  for 
each  of  the  interesting  events.  The  track  is  a  most  excellent  one, 
the  back  stretches  being  wide  and  easy,  with  a  great  home  stretch 
one  hundred  feet  in  width. 

48.  The  speed  barns,  located  conveniently  near  the  track,  are  in  good 
condition  and  well  equipped  for  the  care  of  race  horses.  The  races  are  in 
circuits  that  will  give  horsemen  the  advantage  of  several  weeks'  con- 
tinuous work. 

Special  rules  governing  cattle. 

49.  Entries  must  be  made  fifteen  days  before  the  Fair  opens,  and 
be  accompanied  by  proper  fees  to  cover  charges  for  exhibitor's  ticket 
and  stall  rents.  Exhibitors  are  requested  to  specify  the  number  of  stalls 
required,  on  receipt  of  which  information  stalls  will  be  assigned  and 
their  numbers  sent  to  the  person  or  firm  making  entries. 

50.  Charges. 

Each  animal  over  one  year  old,  $2;  each  animal  under  one  year  old, 
$1;    exhibitor's  ticket,  $2. 

51.  Purity  of  blood  as  established  by  pedigree,  symmetry,  size, 
early  maturity  and  general  characteristics  of  the  several  breeds  of 
animals  to  be  considered;  the  judges  will  make  proper  allowance 
for  age,  feeding  and  other  conditions. 

52.  Persons  exhibiting  pure  bred  animals  will  be  required  to  furnish 
to  the  Secretary,  at  the  time  of  making  the  entry,  the  name  and 
register  number  of  each  animal  entered. 

53.  Basing  dates  of  dairy  cattle  to  be  February  1  and  August  1,  while 
in  the  beef  breeds  the  basing  date  shall  be  September  1. 

54.  All  cows  over  thirty-six  months  old  must  have  given  birth  to 
calf  at  full  maturity  within  past  year,  or  show  unmistakable  evidence 
of  being  in  calf  at  time  of  exhibition. 

55.  }A\  cows  in  the  dairy  breeds,  to  be  judged  in  the  morning 
shall  be  milked  at  six  o'clock  p.m.,  the  day  previous  to  being 
judged,  and  all  dairy  cows,  to  be  judged  in  the  afternoon,  to  be 
milked  at  six  o'clock  a.m.,  of  the  same  day.  The  judge  may,  at 
his  option,  require  any  cow  to  be  milked  while  in  the  ring  or  before  the 
awards  are  made. 

56.  Exhibitors  will  be  required  to  have  blankets  removed  from  cattle 
between  the  hours  of  nine  a.m.,  and  four  p.m,  each  day  of  the  Fair. 


RULES  FOR   LIVE-STOCK  EXHIBITS  391 

57.  Cattle  will  be  assigned  to  the  exposition  building,  the  judging 
to  take  place  in  the  arena  of  same. 

58.  The  superintendent  of  each  department  must  check  the  entries 
shown  in  the  entry  books  in  each  ring,  with  the  exhibits  present,  and 
so  mark  the  entry  books  that  they  will  show  what  animals  were  passed 
on  by  the  judges. 

Special  rules  governing  swine. 

59.  Entries  must  be  made  fifteen  days  before  the  Fair  opens  and  be 
accompanied  by  proper  fees  to  cover  exhibitor's  ticket  and  pen  rent. 
Price  of  pens,  $1  each  ;   exhibitor's  ticket,  $2. 

60.  Swine  must  be  owned  by  the  individual  or  firm  making  the  ex- 
hibit and  must  be  registered  in  the  accredited  records  of  their,  respective 
breeds. 

61.  The  superintendent  of  each  department  must  check  the  entries 
shown  in  the  entry  books  in  each  ring,  with  the  exhibits  present,  and 
so  mark  the  entry  books  that  they  will  show  what  animals  were 
passed  on  by  the  judges. 

Special  rules  governing  sheep. 

62.  Entries  must  be  made  fifteen  days  before  the  Fair  opens,  and  be 
accompanied  by  proper  fees  to  cover  cost  of  exhibitor's  ticket  and  pen 
rent.     Price  of  pens,  $1  each  ;   exhibitor's  ticket,  $2. 

63.  Sheep  must  be  owned  by  the  individual  or  firm  making  the  exhibit 
and  must  be  registered  in  the  accredited  records  of  their  respective 
breeds. 

64.  Each  exhibitor  restricted  to  two  entries  in  one  class. 

65.  Sheep  competing  in  the  Merino  classes  must  be  recorded 
in  the  American  and  Delaine-Merino  Record  Association,  or  the 
Merino  Record  Association  of  Ohio,  Vermont,  or  New  York, 
and  certificates  of  registration,  properly  signed  by  the  secretary''  of 
one  of  the  above-named  associations,  must  accompany  each  animal 
in  the  ring. 

66.  The  superintendent  of  each  department  must  check  the  entries 
shown  in  the  entry  books  in  each  ring,  with  the  exhibits  present,  and 
so  mark  the  entry  books  that  they  will  show  what  animals  were  passed 
on  by  the  judges. 


392 


EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 


Score-cards  for  Farm  Animals 

Herewith  are  given  sanii)le  score-cards  for  different  species  and  classes 

of  animals.     For  score-cards  of  the  breeds  see  \'ol.  Ill,  Cych.  Amer. 

Agr.  (from  which  most  of  the  following  cards,  by  F.  B.  Mumford,   are 

taken) : — 

Draft-horse   score-card 

Class,  Gelding 

General  characters 

Form.  —  Broad,  massive,  blocky,  low-down,  compact  and  symmetrical.     Scale 
large  for  the  age. 


Fig.  9.  —  Parts  of  the  horse.  1,  muzzle  ;  2,  nostrils  ;  '.i,  face  ;  4,  eye  ;  5,  forehead  ; 
G,  ear  ;  7,  neck  ;  8,  crest ;  9.  withers  ;  10,  back,  II,  loin  ;  12,  hip  ;  13,  croup  ; 
14,  tail  ;  15,  thigh  ;  IG,  quarter  ;  17,  gaskin  or  lower  thigh  ;  IS,  hock  ;  19, 
stifle  ;  20,  flank  ;  21,  ribs  ;  22.  tendons  ;  23,  fetlocks  ;  24,  pastt^rn  ;  25,  foot ; 
26,  heel  of  foot  ;  27,  canon  ;  28,  knee  ;  29.  forearm  ;  30,  chest  ;  31,  arm  ;  32, 
shoulder ;  33,  throatlatch  ;  A,  thoroughi)in  ;  B.  curb ;  C,  bog  and  blood 
spavin  ;  D,  bone  spavin  ;  E,  splint ;  F,  windgall ;  G,  cappel  elbow  ;  H,  poll- 
evil.     (Cyclo.  Amer.  Agric.) 


POINTS    OF  A    DRAFT-HORSE  393 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  of  clean-cut  and  symmetrical  features ;  bone 
clean,  large,  and  strong  ;  skin  and  hair  fine  ;  tendons  clean,  sharply  defined,  and 
prominent. 

Constitution.  —  Generous  and  symmetrical  development ;  lively  carriage  ; 
ample  heart-girth,  capacity  of  barrel  and  depth  of  flanks  ;  eyes,  full,  bright  and 
clear  ;   nostrils  large  and  flexible  ;   absence  of  grossness  or  undue  refinement. 

Scale  of  points 

Perfect  Score 

1 .  Height,  estimated  hands ;    corrected  hands. 

2.  Weight,  estimated lb. ;   corrected lb. ;   score  according  to 

age  and  condition 10 

3.  Action,  walk :   rapid,  springy,  regular,  straight ;   trot :   free,  balanced, 

straight 15 

4.  Temperament,  energetic,  tractable 3 

5.  Head,  proper  proportionate  size  ;   well  carried  ;   profile  straight      .     .  1 

6.  Muzzle  neat ;   nostrils  large,  flexible  ;   lips  thin,  even,  firm     ....  1 

7.  Eyes,  bright,  clear,  full,  both  same  color 1 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

9.  Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried 1 

10.  Lower  jaw,  angles  wide,  well  muscled 1 

11.  Neck,  well-muscled,  arched ;    throat-latch  fine ;   wind-pipe  large     .     .  2 

12.  Shoulder,  moderately  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  into  back  .     .  3 

13.  Arm,  short,  strongly  muscled,  thrown  back 1 

14.  Forearm,  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 2 

15.  Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean 2 

16.  Fore  cannons,  short,  wide,  clean  ;  tendons  clean,  well  defined,  prominent      2 

17.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 1 

18.  Pasterns,  moderatelj  sloping ;   strong,  clean 3 

19.  Fore  feet,  large,  even  size  ;    sound  ;  horn  dense,  waxy  ;    soles  concave  ; 

bars  strong,  full ;  frogs  large,  elastic  ;  heels  wide,  one-half  length  of 

toe,  vertical  to  ground 8 

20.  Chest,  deep,  wide  ;   breast  bone  low  ;   girth  large 2 

21.  Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung  ;   closely  ribbed  to  hip 2 

22.  Back,  broad,  short,  strong,  muscular 2 

23.  Loins,  short,  wide,  thickly  muscled 2 

24.  Barrel,  deep,  flanks  full 2 

25.  Hios.  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled 2 

26.  Croup,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  too  drooping 2 

27.  Thighs,  deep,  broad,  muscular 3 

28.  Quarters,  plump  with  muscle,  deep 2 

29.  Stifles,  large,  strong,  muscular,  clean 2 

30.  Gaskins,  lone  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 2 

31.  Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  w-ell  set 8 

32.  Hind  cannons,  ^hort,  wide,  clean ;   tendons  clean,  well  defined  ...  2 

33.  Fetlocks,  wade,  straight,  strong,  clean 1 

34.  Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean 2 

35.  Hind  feet,  large,  even  size  ;   sound  ;  horn  dense,  waxy  ;  soles  concave  ; 

bars  strong,  full ;   frogs  large,  elastic  ;   heels  wide,  one-half  length  of 

toe,  vertical  to  ground       ....  6 

Total 100 

Light-horse  score-card 

Class,  Gelding 

General  characters 

Form.  —  Light,  lean,  lithe  and  muscular ;  long-legged,  short  in  back ;  having 
general  appearance  indicative  of  extreme  activity. 


394  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE   STOCK 

Quality.  —  Extreme  rofinomont  of  symmotrical  and  clean-cut  feature  .s,  showing 
every  requirement  of  strength,  endurance,  style,  and  grace ;  skin  thin  and 
pliable,  showing  veins  plainly  ;  hair  fine ;  mane  and  tail  fine  and  long  ;  bone 
possessing  plenty  of  substance  but  great  refinement ;  tendons  clean,  strong,  and 
sharply  defined. 

Constitution.  —  Generous  and  symmetrical  development ;  an  expression  of 
great  nervous  energy  ;  action  spirited  ;  heart-girth  large ;  floor  of  chest  full ; 
barrel  well  rounded  and  moderately  deep ;  hind  flanks  properly  developed  ; 
eyes  full,  bright,  and  clear  ;  nostrils  large  ;  bone  possessing  abundant  substance 
as  well  as  refinement. 


Scale  of  points 

Perfect  Score 

1.  Weight,  lb. ;    corrected  lb. 

2.  Height, hands;   corrected hands 2 

3.  Action,  walk :    long,  fast,  elastic,  straight  and  regular ;    trot :    rapid, 

regular,  straight 15 

4.  Temperament,  spirited,  energetic,  and  tractable 5 

5.  Skin,  thin,  pliable,  showing  veins  plainly  ;   coat  fine,  soft,  bright    .     .  3 

6.  Head,  correct  proportionate  size,  well  carried  ;  features  clean  cut ;  pro- 

file straight 2 

7.  Muzzle,  neat,  nostrils  large,  flexible  ;   lips,  thin,  firm,  and  even      .     .  1 

8.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  same  color 2 

9.  Forehead,  broad  and  full 2 

10.  Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  alert 1 

11.  Lower  jaw,  angles  wide,  space  clean,  well  muscled 1 

12.  Neck,  well  muscled,  arched,  throatlatch  fine;    windpipe  large    ...  2 

13.  Shoulder,  long,  sloping,  smooth,  extending  into  back 3 

14.  Arm,  short,  strong,  well  muscled,  thrown  back 1 

15.  Forearm,  long,  wide,  clean,  well  muscled 2 

16.  Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean,  strongly  supported    ...  4 

17.  Cannons,  short,  clean,  wide  ;   tendons  large,  clean,  and  prominent        .  2 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 1 

19.  Pasterns,  long,  sloping,  strong,  clean 3 

20.  Fore  feet,  medium  size,  even  and  sound  ;   horn  dense  and  waxj' ;   soles 

concave  ;   bars  strong  and  full ;    frogs  large  and  elastic  ;   heels  wide, 

one-half  length  of  toe  ;   vertical  to  ground 6 

21.  Withers,  high,  extending  well  into  back 1 

22.  Chest,  deep,  low,  girth  large 3 

23.  Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  coupled 2 

24.  Back,  short,  broad,  strong,  muscular 2 

25.  Loins,  short,  broad,  thickly  muscled 2 

26.  Barrel,  long  in  under  line  ;   flanks  well  let  down        1 

27.  Hips,  smooth,  wide  and  level 2 

28.  Croup,  long.  wide,  muscular,  not  drooping 2 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  w^ell  haired,  well  carried 1 

30.  Thighs,  deep,  broad,  strong,  muscular 3 

31.  Quarters  deep,  plump  with  muscle 1 

32.  Stifles,  strong,  clean,  muscular 2 

33.  Gaskins,  long,  wide,  muscular 3 

34.  Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set 7 

35.  Cannons,  short,  clean,  wide  ;   tendons  large,  clean,  and  prominent      .  2 

36.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  and  clean 1 

37.  Pasterns,  strong,  slojjing.  springy,  clean 3 

38.  Hind  feet,  medium  size,  even,  sound  ;    horn  dense,  waxy  ;    soles  con- 

cave ;   bars  strong,  full ;   frogs  large,  elastic  ;   heels  wide     ....     4 

Total 100 


HORSE   SCORE-CARD  395 

Student's  card  for  the  proportions  of  the  horse  (Cornell) 

Name  of  Animal  Breed  or  service 

Sex  Age 

Color  and  Markings  Blemishes 

Defects 

Estimated  Weight  Actual  Weight 

Owner  P.  O. 

Inches 

Height  at  withers 

Height  to  highest  point  of  croup 

Length  from  point  of  shoulder  to  quarter 

From  lowest  point  of  chest  to  the  ground 

From  the  point  of  elbow  to  the  ground 

From  the  point  of  elbow  to  trapezium 

From  trapezium  to  ground 

Circumference  of  the  arm        

Circumference  of  cannon  in  center 

Circumference  of  foot  at  coronet 

Length  of  head 

Width  of  forehead 

Circumference  of  muzzle  at  angle  of  mouth 

Width  of  chest  from  outside  of  shoulder  points 

Width  across  hips 

From  center  of  dock  to  anterior  point  of  patella 

From  point  of  hock  to  point  of  hip 

From  point  of  hock  to  ground 

Circumference  of  thigh 

Circumference  of  shank  in  the  center 

Circumference  of  body  at  the  girth 

Length  of  croup 

Height  of  crest  of  occiput  from  ground 

Dorsal  angle  of  scapula  to  hip 

From  angle  of  lower  jaw  to  forehead  above  eye 

From  throat  to  superior  border  of  neck 

Beef-cattle  score-card 

Class,  Breeding  Females 

General  characters 

Form.  —  Compact,  thick-set  and  short-legged  in  appearance ;  body  deep, 
thick,  and  of  medium  length  ;  top  line  straight,  under  line  low  in  flanks  ;  scale 
medium  to  large,  not  greatly  above  average  for  the  breed. 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  of  symmetrical  and  clean-cut  features;  breed 
characters  pronounced  ;  bone  fine  and  clean  ;  hair  fine  and  soft ;  skin  of  not 
more  than  medium  thickness  ;  head,  neck,  and  legs  short  and  fine,  but  strong. 

Condition.  —  Great  wealth  of  natural  flesh,  as  from  abundant  supplj'  of  best 
grass  or  other  roughage,  but  not  excessively'  fat ;  flesh  firm,  mellow  and  springy, 
without  ties,  lumps,  patches,  or  rolls,  especially  in  the  back  and  loin ;  skin  loose 
and  soft ;  depth  and  evenness  of  flesh  consistent  with  degree  of  fatness. 

Constitution.  —  Generous  and  symmetrical  development ;  lively  carriage  ; 
ample  heart-girth,  capacity  of  barrel  and  depth  of  flanks ;  eyes  full,  bright,  and 
clear ;  nostrils  wide  apart,  large  and  open ;  absence  of  refinement  to  point  of 
delicacy  ;  skin  of  at  least  medium  thickness  and  free  from  scurf  ;  coat  soft  and 
bright. 

Early  maturity.  —  General  refinement  and  compactness;  body  large,  extrem- 
ities small ;  shortness  of  head,  neck,  and  legs  ;  amplitude  of  girth  in  chest,  belly, 
and  flanks. 


396 


EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 


Sexuality.  —  Strongly  marked ;  a  general  appearance  of  sensibility  and 
feminine  refinement  of  features  ;  moderate  length  and  great  capacity  in  coupling  ; 
width  in  loin,  hip-bones,  and  pin-bones ;  well-developed  udder  and  prominent 
milk  veins  ;  horn  and  coat  fine  ;  eyes  expressive  of  mild  and  gentle  sensitiveness. 


Fig.  10.  —  Parts  of  the  cow.  1,  muzzle  ;  2,  face  ;  3,  forehead  ;  4,  throat ;  5,  neck  ; 
6,  dewlap  ;  7,  shoulder  ;  8,  wethers  ;  9,  back  ;  9i,  crops  ;  10,  chine  ;  11,  ribs ; 
12,  fore  ribs  ;  12i,  fore  flank  ;  12,  12i,  chest  ;  13,  belly  ;  14,  flank  ;  15,  loin  ; 
16,  hips  ;  17,  rump  ;  18,  setting  of  tail  ;  19,  thurl  or  pin-bone  ;  20,  quarter  ; 
21,  thigh;  22,  hock;  23,  switch;  24,  leg;  25,  stifle;  26,  udder;  27,  teat; 
28,  forearm  ;  29,  knee  ;  30,  shank  ;  31,  hoof.     (Cyclo.  Amer.  Agric.) 


Scale  of  points  Perfect 

Score 

1.  Age,  estimated ;   corrected 

2.  Weight,  estimated lb.;   corrected lb.;  score  according  to 

age  and  condition 5 

3.  Skin,  of  medium  thickness,  loose,  soft,  elastic,  free  from  scurf    ...  3 

4.  Hair,  fine,  soft,  thick ;    color  and  markings  according  to  breed  ...  3 

5.  Temperament,  quiet,  mild,  and  contented 3 

6.  Muzzle,  mouth  large,  lips  thin,  nostrils  large,  open,  and  wide  apart    .  2 

7.  Face,  fine,  moderately  short  and  broad        2 

8.  Forehead,  full,  broad,  and  square 2 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  and  placid 1 

10.  Jaws,  wide,  deep,  and  strong 1 

11.  Horns,  medium  to  small,  fine   texture,  shape  and  color  according  to 

breed 1 

12.  Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 1 

13.  Neck,    thick,    short,    curving   smoothly   into  shoulders   and   brisket; 

throat  clean  ;   dewlap  slight 3 

14.  Shoulders,  compact,  snug,  smooth,  well  fleshed 5 


CATTLE   SCORE-CARDS  397 

Perfect 
Score 

15.  Fore  legs,  short,  straight,  strong  ;   arm  full ;   bone  fine  and  clean  ;   feet 

small,  strong,  even  ;   hoofs  dense 3 

16.  Brisket,  moderately  projecting,  neat  and  broad 1 

17.  Chest,  full,  deep,  wide  ;   heart-girth  large  ;   fore  flanks  deep  and  full  .  10 

18.  Barrel,  capacious,  medium  length 5 

19.  Crops,  moderately  full,  flesh  thick  and  even 5 

20.  Ribs,  long,  closely  set,  well  sprung,  extending  fairly  well  back ;    back 

broad  and  straight ;   flesh  thick  and  even 10 

21.  Loin,  broad,  straight ;   flesh  thick  and  even 6 

22.  Hips,  wide  but  not  prominent,  capable  of  being  smoothly  covered       .  3 

23.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide  ;   tail-head  smooth  ;   flesh  thick  and  even       .  5 

24.  Pin-bones,  far  apart,  not  prominent 2 

25.  Tail,  tapering,  bone  fine 1 

26.  Thighs  and  twist,  full,  muscled  well  down  to  hocks 6 

27.  Hind  legs,  short,  straight,  strong ;    bone  fine  and  clean ;    feet  small, 

strong,  even ;   hoofs  dense 3 

28.  Hind  flank,  low,  full,  thick 3 

29.  Udder,  large,  shapely,  evenly  quartered,   not  fleshy ;   teats  uniform, 

.    medium-sized,  squarely  placed,  milk  veins  prominent 5 

Total loo 

Beef-cattle  score-card 

Class,  Breeding  Bulls 

General  characters 

Form.  —  Compact,  thick-set,  and  short-legged  in  appearance  ;  body  deep, 
thick,  and  of  medium  length  ;  top  line  straight,  under  line  low  in  flanks ;  fore 
quarters  heavier  than  in  a  cow ;  scale  medium  to  large,  not  greatly  above  aver- 
age for  the  breed. 

Quality.  —  Features  clean  cut  and  symmetrical ;  showing  great  strength  with- 
out grossness ;  breed  characters  pronounced ;  bone  strong  and  clean ;  hair 
moderately  fine  and  soft ;  skin  of  medium  thickness  ;  head,  neck,  and  legs  short, 
strong,  and  massive. 

Condition.  —  Great  wealth  of  natural  flesh  as  from  abundant  supply  of  best 
grass  or  other  roughage,  but  not  excessively  fat ;  flesh  firm,  mellow,  and  springy, 
without  ties,  lumps,  patches,  or  rolls,  especially  in  the  back  and  loin  ;  depth  and 
evenness  of  flesh  consistent  with  degree  of  fatness. 

Constitution.  —  Generous  and  symmetrical  development ;  lively  carriage  ; 
ample  heart -girth,  capacity  of  barrel  and  depth  of  flanks ;  eye  full,  bright,  and 
clear ;  nostrils  wide  apart,  large,  and  open ;  absence  of  grossness  or  of  undue 
refinement. 

Early  maturity.  —  Compactness  and  strength,  with  as  much  refinement  as  is 
consistent  with  masculinity ;  body  large,  extremities  small ;  shortness  of  head, 
neck,  and  legs ;   amplitude  of  girth  in  chest,  belly,  and  flanks. 

Sexuality.  —  Strongly  marked  ;  a  majestic  carriage  and  general  appearance 
of  masculine  power  and  aggressiveness ;  great  strength  without  grossness  in 
head,  neck,  and  legs  ;  chest  well  developed  ;  shoulders  very  strong  ;  well-devel- 
oped sexual  organs. 

Scale  of  points  Perfect 

Score 

1.  Age,  estimated ;   corrected 

2.  Weight,    estimated  lb. ;    corrected  lb. ;    according  to   age 

and  condition 5 

3.  Skin,  moderately  thick,  loose,  soft,  elastic,  free  from  scurf     ....         3 


398  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

Perfect 
Score 

4.  Hair,  thick  ;  moderately  fine  and  soft,  color  and  markings  according  to 

breed 3 

5.  Temperament,  alert  but  quiet  and  good-natured 3 

6.  Muzzle,  mouth  large,  lips  round  and  firm  ;  nostrils  large,  open,  and  wide 

apart 2 

7.  Face,  short,  straight,  strong,  full 2 

8.  Forehead,  full,  very  broad,  heavy  between  eyes 2 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  mild 1 

10.  Jaws,  wide,  deep,  and  strong 1 

11.  Horns,  fine  texture,  strong  ;   shape  and  color  according  to  breed     .     .  1 

12.  Ears,  medium  size,  well  haired,  not  coarse 1 

13.  Neck,  short,  massive,   curving  strongly  into  shoulders  and  brisket; 

crest  strong  ;   throat  clean  ;    dewlap  slight 3 

14.  Shoulders,  strongly  developed,  compact,  snug,  well  fleshed    ....         5 

15.  Fore  legs,  short,  straight,  arm  full,  bone  strong  and  clean  ;  hoofs  large, 

strong,  even,  and  dense 3 

16.  Brisket,  deep,  broad,  rounded,  neat,  moderately  projecting  ....  1 

17.  Chest,  full,  deep,  wide  ;   heart-girth  large  ;   fore  flanks  deep        ...  10 

18.  Barrel,  deep,  broad,  medium  length 4 

19.  Crops,  full  and  thick,  straight  in  top  line 5 

20.  Ribs,  long,  closely  set,  well  sprung,  extending  well  back ;    back  broad 

and  straight ;   flesh  thick  and  even 10 

21.  Loin,  broad,  straight;   flesh  thick  and  even 6 

22.  Hips,  wide,  but  not  prominent,  capable  of  being  smoothly  covered     .  3 

23.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide  ;   tail-head  smooth  ;   flesh  thick  and  even       .  5 

24.  Pin-bones,  far  apart,  not  prominent 2 

25.  Tail,  tapering,  bone  moderately  fine 1 

26.  Thighs,  full,  wide  and  deep  ;   muscled  well  down  to  hocks      ....  4 

27.  Twist,  deep  and  full 4 

28.  Hind  legs,  short,  straight,  bone  strong  and  clean  ;   hoofs  large,  strong, 

and  even 3 

29.  Hind  flank,  full,  low 4 

30.  Testicles,  well  developed,  both  present  and  normally  placed       .     .     .     3 

Total 100 

Dairy-cattle  score-card 

Class,  Breeding  Females 

General  characters 

Form.  —  Spare,  angular,  moderately  short-legged  ;  barrel,  capacious ;  hind 
quarters,  wide  and  deep ;  scale,  medium  to  large,  not  greatly  above  average  for 
the  breed. 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  of  symmetrical  and  clean-cut  features ;  bone 
fine  and  clean  ;  hair  fine  and  soft ;  skin  of  not  more  than  medium  thickness ; 
head,  neck,  and  legs  fine  and  of  moderate  length. 

Condition.  —  Spare,  no  fat  apparent ;   skin  loose  and  mellow. 

Conslitxdion.  —  Generous  and  symmetrical  development ;  lively  carriage  ; 
ample  heart-girth  ;  capacity  of  barrel  and  depth  of  flanks ;  eyes  full,  bright,  and 
clear  ;  nostrils,  wide  apart,  large,  and  open  ;  absence  of  refinement  and  spareness 
to  point  of  delicacy  or  emaciation  ;  skin  of  medium  thickness,  free  from  scurf ; 
coat  soft  and  bright. 

Nervous  energy.  —  Spinal  column  prominent,  vertebra?  wide  apart ;  forehead 
high  and  wide ;  ears  active ;  temperament  alert ;  also  the  indications  of  con- 
stitution and  quality. 

Sexuality.  —  A  general  appearance  of  sensibility  and  feminine  refinement 
of  features ;    moderate  length  and  great   capacity  in  barrel,  width  in  loin,  hip- 


DAIRY-CATTLE  POINTS  399 

bonea  and  pin-bones ;  well-developed  udder  ;  horn  and  coat  fine  ;  eyes  expres- 
sive of  mild  and  gentle  sensitiveness. 

Milk-giving  capacity.  —  Udder  large,  shapely,  evenly  quartered,  free  from 
fleshiness,  extending  well  up  behind  and  far  forward,  strongly  attached  ;  milk- 
veins  large  and  tortuous ;  milk-wells  large  ;  secretions  of  skin  abundant  and 
yellow ;  also  the  above  indications  of  all  the  other  general  characters. 

Scale  of  points  Perfect 

Score 

1.  Age,  estimated 

2.  Weight,  estimated  lb.  ;   corrected  lb. ;   score  according  to 

age  and  condition 2 

3.  Skin,  medium  fine,  loose,  mellow,  elastic,  free  from  scurf;    secretions 

yellow  and  abundant 5 

4.  Hair,  fine,  soft,  thick  ;   color  and  markings  according  to  breed  ...  2 

5.  Temperament,  alert,  but  mild  and  tractable 5 

6.  Muzzle,  clean-cut,  mouth  large,  lips  thin,  nostrils  large 1 

7.  Face,  lean,  fine,  slightly  dished 1 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  high,  slightly  dished 1 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  mild 3 

10.  Horns,  medium  to  small,  fine  texture,  shape,  and  color  according  to  breed         1 

11.  Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 1 

12.  Neck,  fine,  spare,  medium  length,  throat  clean ;   dewlap  light ;   neatly 

attached  to  head  and  shoulders 2 

13.  Shoulders,  lean,  sloping  ;   narrow  at  withers,  moderately  wide  at  points        2 

14.  Fore  legs,  straight,  short,  bone  clean  and  fine  ;  feet  strong,  hoofs  dense 

and  even 2 

15.  Brisket,  light,  thin        1 

16.  Chest,  deep,  capacious 8 

17.  Barrel,  capacious,  medium  length 10 

18.  Back,  lean,  straight,  medium  length  ;  vertebrae  wide  spaced  and  promi- 

nent ;   ribs  long,  broad,  wide  spaced,  moderately  well  sprung      .     .  8 

19.  Loin,  broad,  lean,  coupling,  roomy 3 

20.  Hips,  far  apart,  level  with  back 2 

21.  Rump,  lean,  long,  broad  ;   pelvic  arch  prominent ;   pin-bones  high,  far 

apart 4 

22.  Tail,  tapering,  bone  fine,  length  according  to  breed 1 

23.  Thighs,  thin,  incurving,  twist  roomy 3 

24.  Hind  legs,  straight,  short,  bone  clean  and  fine ;    feet  strong ;    hoofs 

dense  and  even 2 

25.  Udder,  large,  shapely,  evenly  quartered,  mellow,  free  from  fleshiness, 

extending  well  up  behind  and  far  forward,  strongly  attached  ;   teats 

uniform,  well  placed,  of  size  and  shape  convenient  for  milking    .     .  20 

26.  Milk  veins,  large,  tortuous  ;   milk  wells  large        10 

Total 100 

Mutton-sheep  score-card 
Class,  Fat  Wethers 
General  characters 

Form.  —  Compact,  thick-set  and  short-legged ;  body  deep,  thick,  and  of 
medium  length  ;   top  line  straight ;   under  line  low  in  flanks  ;   scale  large  for  age. 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  and  symmetry  of  clean-cut  features ;  mutton 
breed  character  pronounced  ;  head,  neck,  and  legs  short ;  bone  fine  and  smooth  ; 
fleece  pure  and  fine. 

Condition.  —  Prime  ;  a  deep,  even  covering  of  firm,  mellow,  and  springy  flesh, 
without  lumps,  patches,  rolls,  or  undue  accumulations  of  fat,  especially  in  back 


400  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

loin,  rump,  or  fore  flanks ;  nock  thick ;  shoulder-vein  full ;  top  and  points  of 
shoulder,  back-bone,  and  loin  smoothly  covered,  and  leg  of  mutton  deep  and  full. 

Constitution.  —  Should  be  thoroughly  healthy. 

Early  maturity.  —  General  refinement  and  comj^actncss  ;  body  large  ;  ex- 
tremities small ;  shortness  of  head,  neck,  and  legs  ;  amplitude  of  girth  in  chest, 
belly,  and  flanks. 


Fig.  11.  —  Parts  of  the  sheep.  1,  head  ;  2,  neck  ;  3,  shoulder  vein  ;  4,  shoulder  ; 
5,  brisket ;  6,  fore  leg  ;  7,  chest ;  8,  ribs  ;  9,  top  of  shoulder  ;  10,  back  ;  11,  loin  ; 
12,  hip  ;  13,  rump  ;  14,  tail ;  15,  giggot  or  leg  of  mutton  ;  16,  hind  leg  ; 
17,  flank  ;  18,  belly     19,  fore  flank  ;  20,  twist.     {.Cycle.  Amer.  Agric.) 

Scale  of  points  Perfect 

1.  Age,  Score 

2.  Scale,  estimated  weight  —  lb. ;  corrected  —  lb. ;  score  according  to  age       12 

3.  Skin,  bright,  clean,  and  free  from  scurf  ;    color  according  to  breed       .  1 

4.  Fleece,  pure,  uniformly  long  and  dense  ;  crimp,  even  and  fine  ;  quality 

fine  ;   condition  bright,  clean,  and  lustrous  ;   yolk  evenly  distributed 

and  moderately  abundant ;   general  character  according  to  breed    .  12 

5.  Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  open 1 

6.  Face,  short ;   color  and  covering  according  to  breed 2 

7.  Eyes,  bright  and  clear 2 

8.  Forehead,  broad  ;   wooled  according  to  breed 2 

9.  Ears,  fine ;   length,  color,  covering  and  carriage  according  to  breed    .  2 

10.  Neck,  short  and  thick,  blending  smoothly  with  shoulder 3 

11.  Shoulder,  broad,  compact  and  snug ;    thickly  and  evenly  fleshed     .     ,         5 

12.  Fore  legs,  straight,  short,  arm  full ;  bone  fine  and  smooth  ;  feet  strong; 

color  and  covering  according  to  breed 3 

13.  Chest,  deep,  broad,  and  full ;    brisket  wide,  heart-girth  large ;    fore 

flanks  deep  and  full 5 

14.  Back,  broad,  straight,  and  of  medium  length  ;  ribs  well  sprung  ;  thickly 

and  evenly  fleshed 10 

15.  Loin,  broad  and  straight ;   thickly  and  evenly  flashed 10 

16.  Rump,  long,  level  and  wide;   hips  smooth;   thickly  and  evenly  fleshed  10 

17.  Thighs,  full,  floslied  low  down,  twist  deep  and  full 15 

18.  Belly.  nf)t  unduly  large 2 

19.  Hind  legs,  straight  and  short,  bone  fine  and  smooth  ;    feet  strong ; 

color  and  covering  according  to  breed 3 

Total 100 


POINTS   OF  SHEEP 


401 


Breeding-sheep  score-card 
General  characters 

Form.  —  Compact,  thick-set,  and  short-legged  ;  body  deep,  thick,  and  of  me- 
dium length  ;   top  line  straight ;   under  line  low  in  flanks  ;   scale  large  for  age. 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  and  symmetry  of  clean-cut  features ;  breed 
character  pronounced  ;  head,  neck,  and  legs  short ;  bone  smooth,  moderately 
fine  in  ewe,  somewhat  stronger  in  ram  ;  fleece  pure,  fine  in  ewe,  somewhat  coarser 
in  ram. 

Condition.  —  Great  wealth  of  natural  flesh,  but  not  excessively  fat ;  flesh  firm, 
mellow  and  springy,  without  lumps,  patches,  rolls  or  undue  accumulations  of 
fat,  especially  in  back,  loin,  rump,  and  foreflanks ;  depth  and  evenness  of  flesh 
consistent  with  degree  of  f'^tness. 

Constitution.  —  Generous  and  symmetrical  development ;  ample  heart-girth, 
capacity  of  barrel  and  depth  of  flanks  ;  eyes  full,  bright,  and  clear  ;  nostrils  large 
and  open  ;  throat  free  from  lumps  ;  absence  of  refinement  to  point  of  delicacy ; 
skin  bright ;  fleece  bright,  soft,  and  long,  crimp  even,  yolk  moderately  abundant. 

Early  maturity.  —  General  refinement  and  compactness ;  body  large,  extrem- 
ities small ;  shortness  of  head,  neck,  and  legs  ;  amplitude  of  girth  in  chest,  belly, 
and  flanks. 

Sexuality.  —  In  males  :  A  bold,  active,  and  aggressive  carriage  ;  great  strength 
without  grossness  in  head,  neck,  legs,  and  shoulders ;  well-developed  sexual 
organs. 

In  females :  General  refinement ;  good  development  of  barrel ;  head,  neck, 
and  legs  lighter  and  finer  than  in  ram. 


Scale  of  Points 

Mutton 
Sheep 

FlNE- 
WOOLED 

Sheep 

Perfect 
Score 

Perfect 
Score 

1.  Age, 

2.  Scale,  estimated  weight lb. ;   corrected lb. ; 

score  according  to  age 

3.  Skin,  bright,  clean,  and  free  from  scurf;    color  ac- 

cording to  breed .           ... 

10 
3 

15 

1 

5 
3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

8 
5 

4.    Fleece,  pure,  uniformly  long  and  dense  ;   crimp  even 
and  fine ;    quality  fine ;    condition  bright,  clean, 
and  lustrous  ;  yolk  evenly  distributed  and  moder- 
ately abundant ;   general  character    according   to 
breed 

30 

5.  Muzzle,  fine  in  ewe,  broad  in  ram  ;   nostrils  open     . 

6.  Face,  short ;   fine  in  ewe,  strong  in  ram ;    color  and 

covering  according  to  breed 

7.  Eyes,  large,  bright,  and  clear 

8.  Forehead,  broad  in  ewe,  still  broader  in  ram  ;  wooled 

according  to  breed 

9.  Ears,  fine  ;    length,  color,  covering,  and  carriage  ac- 

cording to  breed ... 

1 

5 
3 

3 
3 

10.    Neck,  short,  blending  smoothly  with  shoulders  ;   es- 
pecially thick  in  ram 

2 

11.  Shoulder,  broad,  compact,  snug,  and  well  fleshed 

12.  Fore  legs,  straight,  short,  arm  full,  feet  strong  ;  bone 

smooth,  fine  in  ewe,  stronger  in  ram  ;    color  and 
covering  according  to  breed 

3 
3 

2d 


402 


EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 


Scale  of  Points 

Mutton 
Sheep 

FlNE- 
WOOLED 

Sheep 

Perfect 
Score 

Perfect 
Score 

13.  Chest,  deep,  broad,  and  full ;    brisket  wide ;   heart- 

girth  large  ;   fore  flanks  deep  and  full      .... 

14.  Back,  well  fleshed,  broad,  straight,  and  of  medium 

length  ;   ribs  well  sprung 

15.  Loin,  well  fleshed,  broad,  and  straight 

16.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide,  and  well  fleshed  .... 

17.  Thighs,  full ;   fleshed  low  down  ;   twist  deep  and  full 

18.  Body,  deep  and  capacious  in  belly  and  hind  flanks  . 

19.  Hind  legs,  straight  and  short ;    feet  strong ;    bone 

smooth,  moderately  fine  in  ewe,  strong  in  ram  ; 
color  and  covering  according  to  breed     .... 

10 

6 

6 

6 

10 

4 

4 

10 

4 
4 
4 
6 
3 

3 

Total 

100 

100 

FiQ.  12. —  Parts  of  the  hog.  a,  snout ;  h,  ear  ;  c,  neck  ;  d,  jowl ;  e,  shoulder  ;  /,  back  ; 
g,  loin  ;  h,  rump  ;  j,  ham  ;  k,  side  or  ribs  ;  I,  flank  ;  m,  belly  ;  n,  fore  flank ; 
o,  fore  leg  ;  p,  hind  leg  {Cyclo.  Amer.  Agric.) 


Fat-hog  score-card 

Class,  Breeding  Hogs 

General  characters 

Form.  —  Low-set,  broad  and  deep  ;  standing  squarely  on  short  and  strong  legs 
and  feet ;  back  slightly  arched  ;  body  compact  in  male,  of  good  length  in  female  ; 
under  line  approximately  straight ;  scale  medium  to  large,  not  greatly  above 
average  for  the  breed. 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  of  symmetrical  and  clean-cut  features  ;  bone 
clean  and  strong,  moderately  coarse  in  male,  moderately  fine  in  female  ;  skin 
smooth  ;  hair  fine  ;  head,  neck,  and  legs  short ;  shields  in  male  notj  unduly  coarse  ; 
breed  characters  pronounced. 

Condition.  —  Strongly  muscled  and  thickly  fleshed,  but  not  excessively  fat ; 
flesh  firm,  mellow,  even,  and  smooth. 


POINTS   OF  SWINE  403 

Constitution. —  Generous  and  sj'mmetrical  development ;  lively  carriage  ;  ample 
heart-girth,  capacity  of  barrel  and  depth  of  flanks ;  eyes  full,  bright,  and  clear : 
coat  thick,  smooth,  and  bright ;    absence  of  refinement  to  point  of  delicacy. 

Sexuality.  —  Strongly  marked.  In  males :  Active  carriage,  aggressive  dis- 
position ;  strength  without  grossness  in  head  and  legs  ;  neck  arched  and  heavy  ; 
snout  broad ;  shoulders  strong ;  shields  present  in  mature  animals  ;  well  de- 
veloped sexual  organs.  In  female  :  General  refinement  of  features  ;  good  length 
and  depth  in  barrel ;  full  number  of  well-placed  and  well-developed  teats  present ; 
head  lighter  than  in  boar,  neck  narrower  behind  ears ;  good  breadth  in  loin, 
hips,  and  rump. 

Early  maturity.  —  General  refinement  and  compactness ;  body  large,  extrem- 
ities small ;  shortness  of  head,  neck,  and  legs  ;  amplitude  of  girth  in  chest,  belly, 
and  flanks. 

Scale  of  points  Perfect 

Score 

1.  Age,  estimated ;   corrected 

2.  Scale,  estimated  weight lb. ;   corrected  lb. ;   score  accord- 

ing to  age 6 

3.  Skin,  smooth,  mellow,  and  free  from  scurf 2 

4.  Hair,  thick,  bright,  smooth,  fine,  and  uniformly  distributed  ;   color  and 

markings  according  to  breed 2 

5.  Temperament,  aggressive  in  male  ;   gentle  and  quiet  in  female  •     •  ,  •         2 

6.  Snout,  short  and  smooth,  tapering  from  face  to  tip  of  nose ;    broad  in 

male,  finer  in  female 1 

7.  Face,  short,  smooth,  broad  between  eyes,  dished  according  to  breed  ; 

cheeks  full ;   forehead  high  and  wide 2 

8.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear   and  not  obscured  by  wrinkles 1 

9.  Ears,  medium  or  small,  fine  in  texture,  neatly  attached,  carriage  ac- 

cording to  breed 1 

10.  Jowl,  full,  smooth,  firm,  and  neat 2 

11.  Neck,  wide,  deep,  short,  and  nicely  arched,  blending  smoothly  with 

shoulder  ;   in  male,  heavy  ;   in  female,  finer  behind  the  ears    .  .  •     •         3 

12.  Shoulder,  broad,  deep,  full,  and  compact ;    heavier  in  male  than  in  fe- 

male, but  shields  not  unduly  coarse 8 

13.  Fore  legs,  short,  straight,  strong,  squarely  set,  wide  apart ;    pasterns 

short ;  feet  strong  ;  bone  moderately  coarse  in  male,  moderately  fine 

in  female 6 

14.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  and  full ;   breast-bone  advanced 8 

15.  Back  and  loin,  broad,  strong,  and  slightly  arched  ;  moderately  short  in 

male,  moderately  long  in  female  ;  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed  ;   ribs 
well  sprung 12 

16.  Sides,  deep,  full,  and  smooth 8 

17.  Belly,  wide  ;   under  line  approximately  straight 3 

18.  Udder  (female),  full  number  of  well-developed  and  well-placed  teats  . 
Testicles  (male),  well-developed,  both  present  and  normally  placed    .         8 

19.  Hind  flank,  low 2 

20.  Rump,  long,  broad,  gradually  rounding  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  thickly 

and  evenly  fleshed  ;   hips  wide  and  smooth 6 

21.  Hams,  full,  deep,  and  broad  ;   fleshed  well  down  to  hocks       ....        10 

22.  Hind  legs,  short,  straight,  strong,  squarely  set,  wide  apart ;    pasterns 

short ;  feet  strong  ;  bone  moderately  coarse  in  male,  moderately  fine 

in  female 6 

23.  Tail,  tapering,  medium-sized,  or  small 1 

Total 100 

The  fat-hog  is  peculiarly  an  American  product.  It  is  universal  throughout  the 
corn-belt.  It  is  marked  by  extreme  compactness  and  by  very  small  development 
of  bone  and  of  waste  parts.  The  hams  and  sides  bring  the  highest  prices,  and 
these  have  been  much  developed.     The  tendency  to  lay  on  fat  is  very  marked. 


404  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

Bacon-hog  score-card 
General  characters 

Form.  —  Long,  deep,  smooth,  and  of  medium  width  ;  sides  straight ;  legs  short 
for  the  breed  ;  head  light ;  back  slightly  arched,  under  line  straight ;  scale  large 
for  age  ;  standard  weight  170-200  pounds. 

Quality.  —  General  refinement  of  symmetrical  and  clean-cut  features ;  bone 
smooth,  fine,  and  strong ;  skin  and  hair  fine  and  smooth  ;  head,  neck,  and  legs 
short  for  the  breed  ;  bacon  hog  breed  character  pronounced. 

Condition.  —  Heavily  muscled,  moderately  fat ;  covering  firm,  smooth,  and 
of  uniform  thickness,  especially  in  sides  and  belly. 

Constitution.  —  Should  be  thoroughly  healthy. 

Early  maturity.  —  General  refinement,  especially  of  head,  neck,  and  legs ; 
body  large  ;   extremities  small ;   amplitude  of  girth  in  chest,  belly,  and  flanks. 

Scale  of  points  Perfect 

Score 

1.  Scale,  large  for  age 6 

2.  Skin,  smooth  and  fine  ;   color  according  to  breed 2 

3.  Hair,  abundant,  fine,  bright,  smooth  ;   color  according  to  breed      .     . 

4.  Snout,  shaped  according  to  breed 

5.  Face,  smooth  and  slightly  dished        

6.  Eyes,  full  and  bright ;    not  obscured  by  wrinkles 

7.  Ears,  fine  in  texture  ;   shape  and  position  according  to  breed      .     .     . 

8.  Jowl,  light,  smooth,  and  neat 3 

9.  Neck,  light,  medium  length 3 

10.  Shoulders,  smooth,  compact,  free  from  any  coarseness  ;   moderately  fat      8 

11.  Fore  legs,  straight,  short  for  the  breed  ;  bone  fine,  strong,  and  smooth  ; 

pasterns  upright,  feet  strong 3 

12.  Chest,  deep  ;   full  in  heart-girth 5 

13.  Back  and  loin,  long,  smooth,  strong,  medium  and  uniform  in  width ; 

moderatelj^  fat 15 

14.  Rump,  long,  smooth,  medium  in  width  ;    rounding  from  loin  to  tail ; 

moderately  fat 5 

15.  Hams,  firm,  smoothly  covered,  fleshed  deep  and  low  toward  hocks     .  10 

16.  Sides,  long,  smooth,  deep,  straight,  moderately  fat        20 

17.  Belly,  long,  smooth,  straight,  and  firm 12 

18.  Hind  legs,  straight,  short  for  the  breed  ;  bone  fine,  strong,  and  smooth, 

pasterns  upright ;   feet  strong 3 

Total 100 

Market  Classes  and  Grades 

Beef,  veal,  mutton,  and  pork  recognized  in  Chicago  wholesale  markets. 
(Hall,  Illinois  Station.) 

Beef 

The  general  divisions  of  the  beef  trade  are  (1)  Carcass  Beef,  (2)  Beef 
Cuts,  and  (3)  Cured  Beef  Products. 

Carcass  Beef.  —  The  classes  are  Steers,  Heifers,  Cows,  and  Bulls 
and  Stags.  They  differ  not  only  in  sex,  but  also  in  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  adapted. 


GRADES    OF  BEEF  AND    VEAL  405 

The  grades  within  these  classes  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium, 
common,  and  canners.  The  grades  are  based  on  differences  in  form, 
thickness,  finish,  quaUty,  soundness,  and  weight. 

The  terms  "  Native,"  "  Western,"  and  "  Texas  "  beef  each  include 
various  classes  and  grades  of  carcasses,  and  refer  to  general  differences 
in  form,  finish,  and  quality. 

The  terms  "  Yearlings,"  ''  Distillers,"  "  Butcher,"  and  "  Kosher  " 
also  include  various  classes  and  grades  of  beef,  and  merely  indicate 
characteristic  features  of  carcass  beef  used  by  certain  branches  of  the 
trade. 

"Shipping  beef"  refers  to  that  sent  to  eastern  cities  and  consists 
principally  of  steers,  heifers  and  cows  of  medium  to  prime  grades. 
Export  beef  consists  largely  of  medium  to  prime  steers. 

Beef  Cuts.  —  The  "  straight  cuts  "  of  beef  are  Loins,  Ribs,  Rounds, 
Chucks,  Plates,  Flanks,  and  Shanks. 

The  grades  of  beef  cuts  are  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  and  Strippers.  The 
grade  of  a  beef  cut  depends  upon  its  thickness,  covering,  quality,  and 
weight. 

Cured  Beef  Products.  —  These  are  classified  as  (1)  Barreled,  (2) 
Smoked,  and  (3)  Canned  Beef. 

Barreled  Beef  is  graded  as  Extra  India  Mess,  Extra  Plate,  Regular 
Plate,  Packet,  Common  Plate,  Rolled  Boneless,  Prime  Mess,  Extra  Mess, 
Rump  Butt  and  Mess  Chuck  Beef,  Beef  Hams  and  Scotch  Buttocks. 

Smoked  Beef  consists  of  Dried  Beef  Hams,  Dried  Beef  Clods,  and 
Smoked  Brisket  Beef. 

Canned  Beef  consists  principally  of  Chipped  Beef,  Beef  Loaf,  Corned 
and  Roast  Beef. 

Veal 

The  divisions  of  the  veal  trade  are  (1)  Carcass  Veal  and  (2)  Veal  Cuts. 

Carcass  Veal.  —  The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  light,  and 
heavy.  The  grade  of  a  veal  carcass  depends  upon  its  form,  quality, 
finish,  and  weight. 

The  terms  "  Native  "  and  "  Western  "  veal  each  include  several  grades 
of  calves,  and  refer  to  general  differences  in  form,  quality,  and  finish. 

Veal  Cuts.  —  The  regular  veal  cuts  are  Saddles  and  Racks.  They 
are  graded  as  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common,  according  to  the  same 
factors  as  carcass  veal. 


406  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE  STOCK 

Subdivisions  of  the  regular  cuts  are  made  in  some  markets  and  sim- 
ilarly graded. 

Mutton  and  Lamb 

The  divisions  of  the  trade  are  (1)  Carcass  Mutton  and  Lamb  and  (2) 
Mutton  and  Lamb  Cuts. 

Carcass  Mutton  and  Lamb.  —  The  classes  are  Wethers,  Ewes, 
Bucks,    Yearlings,  and  Lambs. 

The  grades  within  these  classes  are  choice,  good,  medium,  common  and 
culls.  The  grades  are  based  on  differences  in  form,  quality,  covering, 
and  weight. 

The  shipping  trade  goes  principally  to  cities  in  the  eastern  seaboard 
states,  and  consists  largely  of  medium  to  choice  lambs. 

Mutton  and  Lamb  Cuts.  —  The  leading  cuts  are  Saddles  and  Racks, 
together  with  Legs,  Loins,  Short  Racks,  Stews,  and  Backs.  They  are 
graded  in  the  same  manner  as  carcass  mutton  and  lamb. 

Pork 

Hog  products  are  described  under  three  heads  :  (1)  Dressed  Hogs, 
(2)  Pork  Cuts,  and  (3)  Lard. 

Dressed  Hogs.  —  The  classes  are  Smooth,  Heavy,  Butcher,  Packing 
and  Bacon  Hogs,  Shippers,  and  Pigs.  The  classification  is  based  on 
the  uses  to  which  the  hogs  are  adapted. 

Distinct  grades  are  recognized  only  in  the  Packing  and  Bacon  classes, 
the  former  being  based  on  weight  and  the  latter  chieflj''  on  quality  and 
finish. 

Pork  Cuts.  —  The  classes  are  Hams,  Sides,  Bellies,  Backs,  Loins, 
Shoulders,  Butts  and  Plates,  and  Miscellaneous. 

Pork  cuts  are  quoted  as  fresh  pork,  dry-salt  and  bacon  meats,  bar- 
reled or  plain-pickled  pork,  sweet-pickled  meats,  smoked  meats,  "  Eng- 
lish "  meats,  and  boiled  meats,  respectively. 

The  grading  of  pork  cuts  is  much  more  complex  than  that  of  other 
meats.  It  involves  not  only  their  quality,  shape,  finish,  and  weight, 
but  also  the  styles  of  cutting  and  methods  of  packing  used. 

Lard.  —  The  grades  are  Kettle-Rendered  Leaf,  Kettle-Rendered, 
Neutral,  Prime  Steam,  Refined,  and  Compound  Lard.  The  grading 
is  based  on  the  kinds  of  fat,  included,  method  of  rendering,  color,  flavor 
and  grain. 


GRADES   OF  PORK  AND   SWINE 


407 


Grades 

Prime  heavy  hogs, 
350  to  500  lb.     , 


Butcher  hogs, 
180  to  350  lb. 


Packing  hogs, 
200  to  500  lb. 


Light  hogs, 
125  to  220  lb. 


Pigs,  60  to  125  lb. 


Swine 

Subclasses 


Grades 


Prime 


Heavy  butchers. 


280  to  350  lb [Wo^A 


Bacon 


Medium  butchers,  220  to  280  lb |  E"™,^ 

Light  butchers.  180  to  220  lb [Common 

Heavy  packing.  300  to  500  lb Good 

Medium  packing.  250  to  300  lb ]  Common 

Mixed  packing,  200  to  280  lb [  Inferior 

[  Choice 
English,  160  to  220  lb Light 

LFat 

I  Choice 
Good 
Common 
I  Good 

Light  mixed,  150  to  220  lb Common 

[  Inferior 
Good 

Light  light,  125  to  150  lb ]  Common 

[  Inferior 
Choice 
Good 
Common 


Roughs. 
Stags. 
Boars. 
Miscellaneous :  — 

Roasting  pigs,  15  to  30  lb. 

Feeders. 

Governments. 

Pen-holders. 

Dead  hogs. 

Roughs  are  hogs  of  all  sizes  that  are  coarse,  rough,  and  lacking  in 
condition  —  too  inferior  to  be  classed  as  packing  hogs  or  as  light 
mixed  hogs.  The  pork  from  these  hogs  is  used  for  the  cheaper 
class  of  trade  for  both  packing  and  fresh  meat  purposes. 

Stags  are  hogs  that  at  one  time  were  boars  beyond  the  pig  stage  and 
have  been  subsequently  castrated.  They  sell  with  a  dockage  of  eighty 
pounds.  If  they  are  of  good  quality  and  condition  and  do  not  show 
too  much  stagginess,  they  go  in  with  the  various  grades  of  packing 
hogs.  When  they  are  coarse  and  staggy  in  appearance,  they  are  sold 
in  the  same  class  with  boars.  The  intermediar}^  grades  sell  for  prices 
ranging  between  these  extremes,  dependent  on  their  freedom  from 
stagginess  and  their  quality  and  condition. 


408  EXHIBITING   AND   JUDGING   LIVE-STOCK 

Boars  are  always  sold  in  a  class  by  themselves,  aud  bring  from  $2 
to  $3  per  hundredweight  less  than  the  best  hogs  on  the  market 
at  the  same  time.  They  always  sell  straight,  with  no  dockage.  There 
is  no  distinction  as  to  grades  ;  they  simply  sell  as  boars.  The  pork 
from  these  animals  is  used  to  supply  the  cheaper  class  of  trade,  and  also 
for  making  sausage. 

Roasting  pigs  are  not  generally  quoted  in  market  reports.  They  come 
to  market  in  small  numbers  and  only  during  holiday  seasons,  and  their 
price  varies  greatly. 

Feeders  are  hogs  bought  on  the  market  and  taken  back  to  the  country 
to  be  further  fed,  a  practice  which  is  followed  only  to  a  very  limited 
extent. 

Governments  are  hogs  rejected  by  the  government  inspector  as  not 
sound  in  every  respect.  They  are  usually  bought  up  by  a  local  dealer 
and  taken  to  one  of  the  smaller  packing  houses,  where  they  are  slaugh- 
tered under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector.  If  found  to  be  affected 
so  as  to  make  their  flesh  unfit  for  human  food,  they  are  condemned, 
slaughtered,  and  tanked.  The  tank  is  a  large,  steam-tight  receptacle, 
like  a  steam  boiler,  in  which  the  lard  is  rendered  under  steam  pressure. 
This  high  degree  of  heat  destroys  all  disease  germs  with  which  the 
diseased  carcass  may  have  been  affected.  The  product  of  the  tank  is 
converted  into  grease  and  fertilizer. 

The  commission  men  who  sell  the  stock  as  it  comes  to  the  yards, 
and  the  speculators  who  handle  part  of  it,  pay  nothing  for  their  privi- 
lege of  doing  business  in  the  yards.  They  hold  their  respective  positions 
by  common  consent  and  their  respective  pens  by  keeping  hogs  in  them. 
These  hogs  are  called  pen-holders,  and  have  no  influence  on  the  market. 

Dead  hogs  are  those  killed  in  the  cars  in  transit.  They  are  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  grease,  soap,  and  fertilizer. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

Computing  the  Ration  for  Farm  Animals 


Modern  experiments  (principally  German)  have  resulted  in  formu- 
lating standard  rations  for  different  animals  at  different  ages  and  under 
different  conditions.  These  feeding  standards  are  only  approximate 
guides,  but  they  are  sufficient  for  practical  purposes. 

Computing  by  Energy  Values 

A  method  is  proposed  of  calculating  feeding  requirements,  reckoned 
on  the  protein  and  the  energy  values  or  therms  of  chemical  energy. 
A  therm  is  the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1,000  kilo- 
grams of  water  1°  C.  The  chemical  energy  contained  in  anthracite 
is  3.583  therms  per  pound.  (A  pound  of  anthracite  produces  heat 
enough  to  raise  the  temperature  of  3.583  kilograms  of  water  1°  C.) 
In  the  same  way  the  amount  of  chemical  energy  contained  in  many 
feeding  stuffs  has  been  measured.  Following  are  determinations  of 
chemical  energy  in  100  pounds  (with  15  per  cent  moisture) :  — 

Therms  Therms 

Timothy  hay 175.1     Corn-meal 170.9 

Clover  hay 173.2     Oats 180.6 

Oat  straw 171.0     Wheat  bran 175.5 

Wheat  straw 171.4     Linseed-meal 196.7 

Maintenance  requirements  of  cattle  and  horses,  per  day  and  head  (Armsby) 

(Production  requirements  are  also  determined,  and  must  be  used  in  calculat- 
ing rations.) 


Cattle 

Horses 

Live  Weight 

Digestible 

Energy 

Digestible 

Energy 

protein 

value 

protein 

value 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Therms 

Pounds 

Therms 

150 

0.15 

1.70 

0.30 

2.00 

250 

0.20 

2.40 

0.40 

2.80 

500 

0.30 

3.80 

0.60 

4.40 

750 

0.40 

4.95 

0.80 

5.80 

1000 

0.50 

6.00 

1.00 

7.00 

1250 

0.60 

7.00 

1.20 

8.15 

1500 

0.65 

7.90 

1.30 

9.20 

409 


410        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 


Computing  on  Basis  of  Quality  and  Quantity  of  Milk 

"  The  quality  of  milk  is  quite  as  important  a  factor  in  formulat- 
ing a  feeding  standard  or  guide  to  feeding  practice,  as  quantity  of 
milk  yielded,"  according  to  Haecker  (Minn.  Bull.  79).  "  It  would 
seem  quite  as  consistent  to  feed  an  animal  food  regardless  of  its 
composition  as  to  feed  an  assumed  ration  regardless  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  product  which  is  to  be  elaborated  from  the  nutrients  of 
the  food." 

It  is  probably  not  possible  to  "feed  fat  into  milk,"  provided  the 
animal  is  otherwise  well  nourished,  but  the  Haecker  standards  are 
not  founded  on  that  idea,  but  on  the  assumption  that  the  greater 
the  yield  of  butter-fat  the  greater  should  be  the  feed  of  maintenance. 
This  method  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  German  method 
(p.  413),  in  figuring  rations  for  dairy  cows. 

Net  nutrients  used  by  mature  cows  for  the  production  of  one  pound  of  milk 
testing  a  given  per  cent  butter-fat  (Haecker) 


Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Milk  testing 2.5 

.0362 

.164 

.0124 

.  .  2.6 

.0369 

.167 

.0126 

.  2.7 

.0376 

.171 

.0128 

.  2.8 

.0383 

.174 

.0131 

.   .  2.9 

.0390 

.177 

.0133 

.  3.0 

.0397 

.181 

.0136 

.  3.1 

.0404 

.184 

.0138 

.  3.2 

.0411 

.187 

.0140 

.  3.3 

.0418 

.190 

.0142 

.  3.4 

.0425 

.194 

.0145 

.  3.5 

.0432 

.197 

.0147 

.  3.6 

.0439 

.200 

.0149 

.  3.7 

.0446 

.204 

.0152 

.  3.8 

.0453 

.207 

.0154 

.  3.9 

.0460 

.210 

.0156 

.  4.0 

.0467 

.214 

,0159 

.  4.1 

.0474 

.217 

.0161 

.  4.2 

.0481 

.220 

.0163 

.  4.3 

.0488 

.223 

.0165 

.  4.4 

.0495 

.227 

.0168 

.  4.5 

.0502 

.230 

.0170 

.  4.6 

.0509 

.233 

.0172 

.  4.7 
.  4.8 
.  4.9 

.0516 
.0523 
.0530 

.237 
.240 
.243 

.0175 
.0177 
.0179 

THE  HAECKER   STANDARDS 


411 


Net  nutrients  used  by  mature  cows  —  Continued 


Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Ether 
Extract 

Milk  testing 

.  .  .  5.0 

.0537 

.247 

.0182 

" 

.  .  .  5.1 

.0544 

.250 

.0185 

<< 

.  .  .  5.2 

.0551 

.253 

.0187 

<i 

.  .  5.3 

.0558 

.256 

.0189 

" 

.  .  .  5.4 

.0565 

.260 

.0192 

" 

.  .  5.5 

.0572 

.263 

.0194 

«4 

.  .  5.6 

.0579 

.266 

.0196 

<( 

.  .  5.7 

.0586 

.270 

.0199 

(( 

.  .  5.8 

.0593 

.273 

.0201 

« 

.  .  5.9 

.0600 

.276 

.0203 

« 

.   .  6.0 

.0607 

.280 

.0206 

«( 

.  .  6.1 

.0614 

.283 

.0208 

«< 

.  .  6.2 

.0621 

.286 

.021C 

i< 

.  .  6.3 

.0628 

.289 

.0212 

4( 

.  .  6.4 

.0635 

.293 

.0215 

«< 

.  .  6.5 

.0642 

.296 

.0217 

« 

.   .  6.6 

.0649 

.300 

.0219 

<( 

.  .  6.7 

.0656 

.303 

.0222 

It 

.  .  6.8 

.0663 

.306 

.0224 

'* 

.  .  6.9 

.0670 

.309 

.0226 

" 

.  .  7.0 

.0677 

.313 

.0229 

Coefficients  for  food  of  maintenanc 

3  ^  per  cwt . 

.07 

7.7 

.01 

"  Given  the  daily  yield  of  milk  in  pounds,  its  percentage  of  butter- 
fat,  and  the  weight  of  the  cow  expressed  decimally,  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  determine  the  required  ration.  As  an  illustration,  suppose 
a  mature  cow  weighs  825  pounds,  gives  20  pounds  of  milk  daily 
testing  4  per  cent  butter-fat.  One  pound  of  4  per  cent  milk  re- 
quires of  protein  .0467,  carbohydrates  .214,  and  of  ether  extract 
.0159;  multiplying  these  factors  by  20  it  is  found  that  for  the 
production  of  milk  the  cow  needs  .934  of  protein,  4.28  of  carbohy- 
drates, and  .318  of  ether  extract.  For  food  of  maintenance,  mul- 
tiply .07  protein,  .7  carbohydrates  and  .01  of  ether  extract  (main- 
tenance formula)  by  8.25,  which  gives  protein  .578,  carbohydrates 
5.78,  and  ether  extract  .082 ;  adding  to  this  the  nutrients  required  for 
milk  production,  we  have  1.51  of  protein,  10.06  carbohydrates,  and 
.40  ether  extract,  the  nutrients  required  in  the  ration.  They  should 
be  supplied  in  such  manner  with  reference  to  bulk  that  the  ration 
will  satisfy  the  appetite.  A  ration  like  this  should  be  largely  made 
up  of  roughage."    (Haecker.) 

For  a  cow  weighing  850  pounds  and  yielding  40  pounds  of  4  per 
1  Maintenance  standards  not  detailed  here. 


412        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 

cent  milk  daily,  the  required  ration  would  be  (P  =  protein;  C.  H. 

=  carbohydrates) :  — 

P.        C.H.        Fat                    P.      C.H.  Fat 

(.0467     .214     .0159)  X     40=1.868    8.56  .636 

(.07          .7         .01     )x8.50  =    .595    5.r5  .085 

Ration  required,    2.463  14.51  .721 

A  ration  like  this  should  be  largely  composed  of  grain  so  that  it 
will  not  contain  so  much  bulk  that  the  cow  will  go  off  her  feed,  and 
yet  furnish  the  nutrients  required.  Cows  do  not  require  a  uniform 
nutritive  ratio,  but  the  ratio  varies  according  to  the  quantity  of  milk 
and  weight  of  cow.  To  illustrate,  let  us  suppose  a  cow  weighing  1200 
pounds  and  yielding  20  pounds  of  milk  daily,  and  one  weighing  850 
pounds  yielding  40  pounds  of  milk,  both  testing  4  per  cent  fat : 

P.  C.  H.        Fat 

Nutrients  for  1  lb.  of  4  per  cent  milk,         .0467        .214        .0159 
Nutrients  for  1  cwt.,  maintenance,  .07  .7  .01 

For  cow  weighing  1200  lbs.  and  yielding  20  lbs.  of  4  per  cent  milk : 

P.  C.  H.  Fat 

Nutrients  for  20  lbs.  milk,  .93        4.28  .32 

Nutrients  for  12  cwt.  maintenance,  .84        8.40  .12 

Ration  required,  1.77  12.68  .44 

Nutritive  ratio,  1 : 7.7 

For  COW  weighing  850  lbs.   and  yielding  40  lbs.    of  4  per  cent 

milk  : 

P.  C.  H.  Fat 

Nutrients  for  40  lbs.  of  milk,                              1.87  8.56  .64 

Nutrients  for  8.5  cwt.  maintenance,                   .59  5.95  .08 

Ration  required,                               2.46  14.51  .72 
Nutritive  ratio,                                                                          1  :  6.5 

But  if  the  cow  weighing  12  cwt.  yields  40  lb.  of  milk  per  day  and 
the  cow  weighing  8.5  cwt.  yields  20  pounds,  the  nutrient  require- 
ments for  their  respective  rations  according  to  table  will  be  as 
follows : 


Nutrients  for  40  lbs.  of  4  per  cent  milk. 
Nutrients  for  12  cwt.  maintenance, 

P. 

1.87 

.84 

C.H 

8.56 
8.40 

Fat 
.64 
.12 

Required  ration. 
Nutritive  ratio, 

2.71 

16.96 

.76 

1:6.8 

Nutrients  for  20  lbs.  of  4  per  cent  milk, 
Nutrients  for  8.5  cwt.  maintenance, 

P 

.93 
.59 

C.H. 

4.28 
5.95 

Fat 

.32 

.08 

Required  ration. 
Nutritive  ratio, 

1.52 

10.23 

.40 

1:7.3 

THE   GERMAN  STANDARDS 


413 


Computing  the  Balanced  Ration  by  the  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards 

The  usual  method  of  computing  rations,  however,  is  by  the  use  of 
the  German  standards  (Table  I)  as  a  basis,  and  then  determining 
from  the  composition  tables  (Table  II)  how  the  various  feeds  may  be 
compounded  so  that  they  will  produce  approximately  the  ratio  of  the 
feeding  standards.  Feeding  standards  have  not  been  sufficiently 
worked  out  for  poultry. 

In  the  following  dairy  ration,  the  nutritive  ratio  is  much  too  wide 
as  compared  with  the  standard:  — 


Dry 
Matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  AND 

Fat 

Total 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

20  lb.  hay 

4  lb.  oats 

4  lb.  corn 

17.40 
3.56 
3.56 

0.560 
0.368 
0.316 

9.300 

2.772 
3.056 

9.860 
2.640 
3.372 



Total 

Feeding  standard 

24.52 
24.00 

1.244 
2.5 

14.628 
13.4 

15.872 
15.9 

1:11.7 
1:5.4 

The  following  table  shows  the  ration  more  nearly  balanced  by  the 
substitution  of  buckwheat  middlings  for  the  corn :  — 


Dry 
Matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  AND 

Fat 

Total 

20  lb.  timothy  hay 

4  lb.  oats 

4  lb.  buckwheat  middlings     .     .     . 

17.40 
3.56 
3.48 

0.560 
0.368 
0.880 

9.300 
2.272 
1.824 

9.860 
2.640 
2.704 

Total     . 

24.44 

1.808 

13.396 

15  204 

Nutritive  ratio  1 :  7.4 

By  adding  cottonseed  meal,  and  reducing  the  hay,  the  ration  con- 
forms practically  to  the  standard :  — 


Dry 

Matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  AND 

Fat 

Total 

18  lb.  timothy  hay 

4  lb.  oats 

4  lb.  buckwheat  middlings     .     .     . 
2  lb.  cottonseed  meal 

15.66 
3.56 
3.48 
1.84 

0.504 
0.368 
0.880 
0.744 

8.370 
2.272 
1.824 

0.888 

8.874 
2.640 
2.704 
1.632 

Total     .... 

24.54 

2.496 

13.354 

15  850 

Nutritive  ratio  1 : 5.3 


414        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  computing  the  ration,  proper  consideration  must  be  given  to  the 
digestibiHty  (Table  III),  and  also,  as  determined  by  experience,  to 
bulk  and  palatableness.  The  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure  differs 
with  the  different  feeds,  as  is  indicated  in  Table  IV.' 

An  exact  mathematical  method  of  equating  rations  is  worked  out 
by  Willard  in  Bull.  115  of  the  Kansas  Exp.  Sta.,  and  condensed  in 
Cyclo.  Amer,  Agric.  Ill,  pp.  103-105.  It  rests  on  finding  the  pro- 
tein-equating factor. 

The  Feeding-Standards 

The  relation  between  the  protein,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  on  the  other,  is  known  as  the  nutritive  ratio  :  thus 
1 :  11.9  means  protein  1  part  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  nearly  12  (11.9) 
parts.  A  ratio  less  than  1 :  5  is  usually  said  to  be  narrow  ;  one  more 
than  1 :  7  is  said  to  be  wide. 

Table  I.  Feeding-Standards 
A.  —  Per  day  and  1000  lb.  live  weights 


Oxen  at  rest  in  the  stall    .... 
Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds   . 
Wool  sheep,  finer  breeds  .... 
Oxen  moderately  worked       .     .     . 

Oxen  heavily  worked 

Horses  lightly  worked       .... 
Horses  moderately  worked    . 
Horses  heavily  worked      .... 
Milch  cows,  Wolff's  standard     .     . 
Milch  cows,  when  yielding  daily  — 

11      lb.  milk 

16.6  lb.  milk 

22.0  lb.  milk 

27.5  lb.  milk    .     .....     •     ... 

Fattening  oxen,  preliminary  period 
Fattening  oxen,  main  period 


Dry 

Digestible 

Matter 

Carbo- 

Protein 

hydrates 
and  Fat 

Total 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

17.5 

0.7 

8.3 

9.0 

20.0 

1.2 

10.8 

12.0 

22.5 

1.5 

12.0 

13.5 

24.0 

1.6 

12.0 

13.0 

26.0 

2.4 

14.3 

16.7 

20.0 

1.5 

10.4 

11.9 

21.0 

1.7 

11.8 

13.5 

23.0 

2.3 

14.3 

16.6 

24.0 

2.5 

13.4 

15.9 

25  0 

1.6 
2.0 

10.7 
11.9 

12.3 
13.9 

27.0 

29.0 

2.5 

14.1 

16.6 

32.0 

3.3 

14.8 

18.1 

27.0 

2.5 

16.1 

18.6 

26.0 

3.0 

16.4 

19.4 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


11.9 
9.0 
8.0 
7.5 
6.0 
6.9 
6.9 
6.2 
5.4 

6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 
6.4 
5.5 


1  The    tables    are   abbreviated  from  Cyclo.    Amer.  Agric. ;   and  nos.  II,  III, 
and  V  there  adapted  from  Henry. 

2  The  fattening  rations  are  calculated  for  1000  lb.,  live  weight,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fattening. 


ACCEPTED   FEEDING-STANDARDS 


415 


Table  I.   Feeding-Standards  —  Continued 


Digestible 

Nutri- 

Dry 

Carbo- 

tive 

Protein 

hydrates 
and  Fat 

Total 

Ratio 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Fattening  oxen,  finishing  period     .     .     . 

25.0 

2.7 

16.2 

18.9 

1:6.0 

Fattening  sheeo.  Dreliminary  period   .     . 

26.0 

3.0 

16.3 

19.3 

1:5.4 

Fattening  sheep,  main  period    .... 

25.0 

3.5 

15.8 

19.3 

1:4.5 

Fattening  swine,  preliminary  period   .     . 

36.0 

5.0 

27.5 

32.5 

1:5.5 

Fattening  swine,  main  period     .... 

31.0 

4.0 

24.0 

28.0 

1:6.0 

Fattening  swine,  finishing  period   .     .     . 

23.5 

2.7 

17.5 

20.2 

1:6.5 

Growing  cattle : 

Average  live  weight 

Age  (months)               per  head 

2-3                        150  lb 

22.0 

4.0 

18.3 

22.3 

1:4.6 

3-6                       300  lb 

23.4 

3.2 

15.8 

19.0 

1:4.9 

6-12                     500  lb 

24.0 

2.5 

14.9 

17.4 

1:6.0 

12-18                     700  lb 

24.0 

2.0 

13.9 

15.9 

1:7.0 

18-24                     850  lb 

24.0 

1.6 

12.7 

14.3 

1:8.0 

Growing  sheep : 

5-6                         56  lb 

28.0 

3.2 

17.4 

20.6 

1:5.4 

6-8                         67  lb 

25.0 

2.7 

14.7 

17.4 

1:5.4 

8-11                       75  1b 

23.0 

2.1 

12.5 

14.6 

1:6.0 

11-15                       82  1b 

22.5 

1.7 

11.8 

13.5 

1:7.0 

15-50                       85  lb 

22.0 

1.4 

11.1 

12.5 

1:8.0 

Growing  fat  pigs : 

2-3                         50  lb 

42.0 

7.5 

30.0 

37.5 

1:4.0 

3-5                       100  lb 

34.0 

5.0 

25.0 

30.0 

1:5.0 

5-6                       125  lb 

31.5 

4.3 

23.7 

28.0 

1:5.5 

6-8                       170  lb 

27.0 

3.4 

20.4 

23.8 

1:6.0 

8-12                     250  lb 

21.0 

2.5 

16.2 

18.7 

1:6.5 

B.  —  Per  day  and  per  head 


Growing  cattle : 

2-3 

3-6 

6-12 
12-18 
18-24 
Growing  sheep : 

5-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 

Growing  fat  swine ; 

2-3 

3-5 

5-6 

6-8 

8-12 


150  lb. 
300  lb. 
500  lb. 
700  lb. 
850  lb. 

56  1b. 
67  1b. 
75  1b. 
82  1b. 
85  1b. 

50  1b. 
100  lb. 
125  lb. 
170  lb. 
250  lb. 


3.3 

0.6 

2.8 

3.4 

7.0 

1.0 

4.9 

5.9 

12.0 

1.3 

7.5 

8.8 

16.8 

1.4 

9.7 

11.1 

20.4 

1.4 

11.1 

12.5 

1.6 

0.18 

0.974 

1.154 

1.7 

0.18 

0.981 

1.161 

1.7 

0.16 

0.953 

1.113 

1.8 

0.14 

0.975 

1.115 

1.9 

0.12 

0.955 

1.075 

2.1 

0.38 

1.50 

1.88 

3.4 

0.50 

2.50 

3.00 

3.9 

0.54 

2.96 

3.50 

4.6 

0.58 

3.47 

4.05 

5.2 

0.62 

4.05 

4.67 

416        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 

Proteid  requirements 

From  the  results  of  a  considerable  number  of  fattening  experi- 
ments with  cattle,  Armsby  has  formulated  the  approximate  proteid 
requirements,  comparing  them  with  those  for  growth  formulated  by 
Kellner ;  and  these  are  here  followed  by  proteid  requirements  of  sheep 
and  swine :  — 

Approximate  proteid  requirements,  in  pounds,  of  cattle,  per  1000  pounds  live 

weight 


American  Results 

Age  1  month        4.80 

Age  2  months 4.00 

Age  3  months  3.50 

Age  1-1 H  years 2.00 

Age  2  years 1-75 

Age  214  years 1.50 


German  Results  (Kellner) 


Age  2-3  months  . 
Age  3-6  months  . 
Age  6-12  months. 
Age  1-1 J^  years  . 
Age  1-13^-2  years 


Lb. 
4.50 
3.50 
2.80 
2.20 
1.50 


Mature,  fattening 1.60 


Proteid  requirements  for  sheep,  per  1000  pounds  live  weight  (Kellner) 


Age  5-  6  months 
Age  6-  8  months 
Age  8-11  months 
Age  11-15  months 
Age  15-20  months 


Mutton  Breeds 


Lb. 

4.5 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.5 


Proteid  requirements  of  swine,  per  1000  pounds  live  weight  (Kellner) 


Brbbdino  Animals 

Fattening 

Animals 

Age  2-  3  months 

Lb. 

6.2 
4.0 
3.0 
2.3 
1.7 

Lb. 
6.2 

Age  3-  5  months 

4.5 

Age  5-  6  months 

Age  6-  8  months 

3.5 
3.0 

Age  9-12  months 

2.4 

FEEDINGS  TUFFS 


417 


Average  weights  of  different 


■stuffs  (Mass.  Sta.) 


Feeding  Stuff 


Barley  meal 

Barley,  whole 

Brewers'  dried  grains 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Corn-and-oat  feed 

Corn  bran 

Corn  meal 

Corn,  whole 

Cottonseed  meal 

Distillers'  dried  grains 

Germ  I  oimeal 

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  meal 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Malt  sprouts 

Mixed  feed  (bran  and  middlings) 

Oat  feed  (a  variable  mixture) 

Oat  middlings 

Oats,  ground 

Oats,  whole 

Rye  feed  (a  mixture  of  rye  bran  and  rye  middlings) 

Rye  meal 

Rye  bran  (Conn.  Sta.) 

Rye,  whole 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) 

Wheat,  whole 

Mixed  wheat  feed  (Conn.  Sta.) 


One  Quart 

One  Pound 

Weighs  — 

Measures — • 

Lb. 

Qt. 

1.1 

0.9 

1.5 

0.7 

0.6 

1.7 

1.4 

0.7 

0.7 

1.4 

0.5 

2.0 

1.5 

0.7 

1.7 

0.6 

1.5 

0.7 

0.5-0.7 

1.0-1.4 

1.4 

0.7 

1.3 

0.8 

1.7 

0.6 

1.1 

0.9 

0.9 

1.1 

1.1 

0.9 

0.6 

1.7 

0.6 

1.7 

0.8 

1.3 

1.5 

0.7 

0.7 

1.4 

1.0 

1.0 

1.3 

0.8 

1.5 

0.7 

0.6 

1.7 

0.6 

0.5 

2.0 

1.7 

0.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.8 

1.3 

1.9 

0.5 

0.6 

— • 

Sample  rations. 

The  following  twelve  rations  for  milch  cows  are  given  as  samples  of 
the  systems  of  feeding  to  be  recommended  in  different  parts  of  the 
country. 

(1)  Hay,  20  lb.  ;  oats,  3  lb.  ;  corn-and-cob  meal,  3  lb  ;  oil-meal,  2 
lb. 

(2)  Hay,  10  lb.  ;  corn-stalks,  ad  lib.  ;  wheat  bran,  3  lb.  ;  corn  meal, 
2  lb.  ;   cottonseed  meal,  2  lb. 

(3)  Roots,  60  lb.  ;  stover,  ad  lib.  ;  oats,  3  lb.  ;  bran,  3  lb.  ;  gluten 
feed,  3  lb. 

2£ 


418        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 

(4)  Corn  fodder,  ad  lib.  ;  corn  silage,  40  lb.  ;  shorts,  2  lb.  ;  dry 
brewers'  grains,  2  lb.  ;    oil-meal,  2  lb. 

(5)  Silage,  40  lb.  ;  hay,  ad  lib.  ;  bran,  4  lb.  ;  oats,  2  lb.  ;  gluten 
meal,  2  lb. 

(6)  Corn  silage,  45  lbs.  ;  hay,  ad  hb.  ;  oats,  4  lb.  ;  oil-meal,  2  lb.  ; 
cottonseed  meal,  1  lb. 

(7)  Corn  silage,  35  lb.  ;  clover  hay,  ad  lib.  ;  bran,  oats,  and  corn 
meal,  2  lb.  each. 

(8)  Cover  silage,  25  lb.  ;  hay,  5  lb.  ;  corn-stalks,  ad  lib.  ;  oats,  3 
3  lb.  ;    corn  meal  and  oil-meal,  2  lb.  each. 

(9)  Clover  or  alfalfa  silage,  30  lb.  ;  hay,  ad  lib.  ;  bran,  4  lb.  ;  mid- 
dlings, 3  lb.  ;    oil-meal,   1  lb. 

(10)  Alfalfa  hay,  20  lb.  ;  oats,  4  lb.  ;   corn  meal,  2  lb. 

(11)  Hay,  20  lb.  ;  cottonseed  hulls,  10  lb.  ;  cottonseed  meal,  4  lb.  ; 
wheat  bran,  2  lb. 

(12)  Corn  silage,  30  lb. ;  cottonseed  hulls,  12  lb. ;  bran,  6  lb. ; 
cottonseed  meal,  3  lb. 

Henry,  in  his  ''  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  gives  the  following  rations, 
from  various  sources,  as  a  guide  in  determining  the  amount  of  feed 
that  should  be  allowed  the  horse  under  various  conditions  :  — 


Ration 

Character  op  Animal 

AND  Work  required 

Conceatrates 

Roughage 

Trotting  horse.  —  (Wood- 

ruff.) 

Colt,  weaning  time  . 

2  lb.  oats 

Hay  unlimited  allowance 

Colt,  one  year  old    . 

4  lb.  oats 

Hay  unlimited  allowance 

Colt,  two  years  old  . 

6  lb.  oats 

Hay  unlimited  allowance 

Colt,  two  years  old.  in 

training       .... 

8  lb.  oats 

Hay,  allowance  limited 

Colt,  three  years  old.  in 

training 

8-12  lb.  oats 

Hay,  allowance  limited 

Trotting  horse.  —  (Splan.) 

Horse  on  circuit .     .     . 

10  lb.  oats 

Hay,  fair  amount 

[  15  lb.  oats,    in  excep-1 

Horse  on  circuit  . 

\      tional  cases  (as 
I      Rarus) 

with 

Hay,  fair  amount 

Horse     variously     used.  — 

(Stonehenge.) 

Race  horse      .... 

15  lb.  oats 

6-8  lb.  hay 

Hack 

8  lb.  oats 

12  lb.  hay 

COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS 


419 


Ration 

Character  of  Animal 

AND  Work  Required 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Horse    variously    used.  — 

(Fleming.) 

Pony 

4  lb.  oats 

jHay,     moderate     allow- 
1         ance 

Hunter,  small      .     .     . 

12  lb.  oats 

12  lb.  hay 

Hunter,  large      .     .     . 

16  lb.  oats 

10  lb.  hay 

Carriage,  light  work     . 

10  lb.  oats 

12  lb.  hay 

The  draft  /lorse.— (Sidney.) 

[  13  lb.  oats 

r  15  lb.  chaffed  clover  hay 

Heavy,  hard  work  .     . 

6  lb.  beans 
I    3  lb.  corn 

J 

Farm  horse.  —  (Settegast.) 

Light  work     .... 

6-10  lb.  oats 

f    6-9  lb.  hay 
^    3  lb.  straw 

Medium  work     .     .     . 

10  lb.  oats 

1 10  lb.  hay 
1    3  lb.  straw 

Heavy  work  .... 

13  lb.  oats 

.  12  lb.  hay 
1    3  lb.  straw 

Composition  Tables 
Table  II.     Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding-stuffs  (Henry) 


Percentage  Composition 

No.  of 

Feeding-stuffs 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

analy- 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Ether 
extract 

ses 

Concentrates 

Corn,  dent 

10.6 

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5.0 

86 

Corn,  flint 

11.3 

1.4 

10.5 

1.7 

70.1 

5.0 

68 

Corn,  sweet 

8.8 

1.9 

11.6 

2.8 

66.8 

8.1 

26 

Corn  meal 

15.0 

1.4 

9.2 

1.9 

68.7 

3.8 

77 

Corn  cob 

10.7 

1.4 

2.4 

30.1 

54.9 

0.5 

18 

Corn-and-cob  meal  .     .     . 

15.1 

1.5 

8.5 

6.6 

64.8 

3.5 

7 

Corn  bran 

9.4 

1.2 

11.2 

11.9 

60.1 

6.2 

6 

Corn  germ 

10.7 

4.0 

9.8 

4.1 

64.0 

7.4 

3 

Hominy  chops      .... 

9.6 

2.7 

10.5 

4.9 

64.3 

8.0 

106 

Germ  meal 

8.6 

2.4 

21.7 

3.8 

47.3 

4.2 

23 

Dried  starch  and  sugar  feed 

10.9 

0.9 

19.7 

4.7 

54.8 

9.0 

4 

Starch  feed,  wet  .... 

65.4 

0.3 

6.1 

3.1 

22.0 

3.1 

12 

Gluten  meal 

9.5 

1.5 

33.8 

2.0 

46.6 

6.6 

12 

Gluten  feed 

9.2 

2.0 

25.0 

6.8 

53.5 

3.5 

102 

Wheat,  all  analyses  .     .     . 

10.5 

1.8 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

310 

Flour,  high  grade 

12.2 

0.6 

14.9 

0.3 

70.0 

2.0 

1 

Flour,  low  grade  .... 

12.0 

2.0 

18.0 

0.9 

63.3 

3.9 

1 

420 


COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Pbbcentaob  Composition 

No.  of 

Feedino-stuffs 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

analy* 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Ether 
extract 

868 

Flour,  dark  feeding       .     . 

9.7 

4.3 

19.9 

3.8 

56.2 

6.2 

1 

liran.  all  analyses     . 

. 

11.9 

5.8 

15.4 

9.0 

53.9 

4.0 

88 

Middlings    .... 

. 

10.0 

3.2 

19.2 

3.2 

59.6 

4.8 

106 

Shorts 

. 

11.2 

4.4 

16.9 

6.2 

56.2 

5.1 

94 

Wheat  screenings 

11.6 

2.9 

12.5 

4.9 

65.1 

3.0 

10 

Rye 

8.7 

2.1 

11.3 

1.5 

74.5 

1.9 

57 

Rye  flour     .... 

13.1 

0.7 

6.7 

0.4 

78.3 

0.8 

4 

Ryo  bran     .... 

11.6 

3.4 

14.6 

3.5 

63.9 

2.8 

29 

Ryo  shorts  and  bran 

124 

3.2 

15.7 

4.1 

61.5 

3.1 

21 

Barley 

10.8 

2.5 

12.0 

4.2 

67.8 

1.8 

22 

Barley  meal     .     .     . 

11.9 

2.6 

10.5 

6.5 

66.3 

2.2 

3 

Barley  screenings 

12.2 

3.6 

12.3 

7.3 

61.8 

2.8 

2 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

75.7 

1.0 

5.4 

3.8 

12.5 

1.6 

15 

Brewers'  grains,  dried 

8.7 

3.7 

25.0 

13.6 

42.3 

6.7 

53 

Malt-sprouts   .     .     . 

9.5 

6.1 

26.3 

11.6 

44.9 

1.6 

47 

Oats  .... 

11.4 

3.2 

11.4 

10.8 

59.4 

4.8 

126 

Oatmeal 

7.9 

2.0 

14.7 

0.9 

67.4 

7.1 

6 

Oat  feed 

7.0 

5.3 

8.0 

21.5 

55.3 

2.9 

110 

Oat  dust 

6.5 

6.9 

13.5 

18.2 

50.2 

4.8 

2 

Oat  hulls 

7.4 

6.7 

3.4 

30.7 

50.5 

1.3 

11 

Rice  .     . 

12.4 

0.4 

7.4 

0.2 

79.2 

0.4 

10 

Rico  meal 

10.2 

8.1 

12.0 

5.4 

51.2 

13.1 

2 

Rice  hulls 

8.8 

15.6 

3.2 

36.2 

35.2 

1.0 

17 

Rice  bran 

9.7 

9.7 

11.9 

12.0 

46.6 

10.1 

24 

Rico  polish 

10.8 

4.8 

11.9 

3.3 

62.3 

7.2 

21 

Buckwheat 

. 

13.4 

2.0 

10.8 

11.7 

59.7 

2.4 

33 

Buckwheat  flour 

14.6 

1.0 

6.9 

0.3 

75.8 

1.4 

4 

Buckwheat  hulls 

13.2 

2  2 

4.6 

43.5 

35.3 

1.1 

2 

Buckwheat  l>ran  .     . 

8.2 

4!9 

12.6 

32.9 

37.9 

3.5 

4 

Buckwheat  shorts     . 

11.1 

5.1 

27.1 

8.3 

40.8 

7.6 

2 

Buckwheat  middlings 

12.8 

5.0 

26.7 

4.4 

44.3 

6.8 

40 

Sorghum  seed 

12.8 

2.1 

9.1 

2.6 

69.8 

3.6 

10 

Broom-corn  seed 

12.8 

2.8 

9.9 

7.0 

64.3 

3.2 

4 

Kafir  seed   .... 

9.9 

1.6 

11.2 

2.7 

71.5 

3.1 

19 

Millet  seed       .     .     . 

12.1 

2.8 

10.9 

8.1 

62.6 

3.5 

6 

Hungarian-grass  seed 

9.5 

5.0 

9.9 

7.7 

63.2 

4.7 

1 

Flax  seed     .... 

9.2 

4.3 

22.6 

7.1 

23.2 

33.7 

50 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 

9.8 

5.5 

33.9 

7.3 

35.7 

7.8 

191 

Linseed  meal  (now  process) 

9.0 

5.5 

37.5 

8.9 

36.4 

2.0 

52 

Cottonseed 

10.3 

3.5 

18.4 

23.2 

24.7 

19.9 

5 

Cottonseed  roasted 

6.1 

5.5 

16.8 

20!4 

23.5 

27.7 

2 

Cottonseed  meal 

7.0 

6.6 

45.3 

6.3 

24.6 

10.2 

319 

Cottonseed  hulls 

11.1 

2.8 

4.2 

46.3 

33.4 

2.2 

20 

Cottonseed  kernels  (with- 

out hulls) 

6.2 

4.7 

31.2 

3.7 

17.6 

36.6 

2 

Coooanut  cake      .      .      .     . 

10.3 

5.9 

19.7 

14.4 

38.7 

11.0 

— 

Palm-nut  meal      .     .      .      . 

10.4 

4.3 

16.8 

24.0 

35.0 

9.5 

600 

Sunflower  seed       .      .      .      . 

8.6 

2.6 

16.3 

29.9 

21.4 

21.2 

2 

COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS 
Table  II  —  Continued 


421 


Percentage 

Composition 

No.  of 

Feeding-stuffs 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

analy- 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Ether 
extract 

ses 

Sunflower-seed  cake 

10.8 

6.7 

32.8 

13.5 

27.1 

9.1 

Peanut     kernel     (without 

hulls)        

7.5 

2.4 

27.9 

7.0 

15.6 

39.6 

7 

Peanut  cake    

10.7 

4.9 

47.6 

5.1 

23.7 

8.0 

2480 

Rape-seed  cake    .... 

10.0 

7.9 

31.2 

11.3 

30.0 

9.6 

500 

Pea  meal 

10.5 

2.6 

20.2 

14.4 

51.1 

1.2 

2 

Soybean      

11.7 

4.8 

33.5 

4.5 

28.3 

17.2 

16 

Cowpea 

14.6 

3.2 

20.5 

3.9 

56.3 

1.5 

2 

Horse  bean 

11.3 

3.8 

26.6 

7.2 

50.1 

1.0 

1 

Roughage 

Corn  forage,  field-cured  — 

Fodder  corn 

42.2 

2.7 

4.5 

14.3 

34.7 

1.6 

35 

Corn  stover  (ears  removed) 

40.5 

3.4 

3.8 

19.7 

31.5 

1.1 

60 

Corn  forage,  green  — 

Fodder  corn,  all  varieties  . 

79.3 

1.2 

1.8 

5.0 

12.2 

0.5 

126 

Dent,  kernels  glazed 

73.4 

1.5 

2.0 

6.7 

15.5 

0.9 

7 

Flint,  kernels  glazed 

77.1 

1.1 

2.7 

4.3 

14.6 

0.8 

10 

Sweet  varieties     .... 

79.1 

1.3 

1.9 

4.4 

12.8 

0.5 

21 

Leaves  and  husks 

66.2 

2.9 

2.1 

8.7 

19.0 

1.1 

4 

Stripped  stalks     .... 

76.1 

0.7 

0.5 

7.3 

14.9 

0.5 

4 

Hay  from  grasses  — 

Hay  from  mixed  grasses      . 

15.3 

5.5 

7.4 

27.2 

42.1 

2.5 

126 

Timothy,  all  analyses    .      . 

13.2 

4.4 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

68 

Timothy,  cut  in  full  bloom 

15.0 

4.5 

6.0 

29.6 

41.9 

3.0 

12 

Timothy,    cut    soon    after 

bloom 

14.2 

4.4 

5.7 

28.1 

44.6 

3.0 

11 

Timothy,  cut  when  nearly 

ripe 

14.1 

3.9 

5.0 

31.1 

43.7 

2.2 

12 

Orchard-grass        .... 

9.9 

6.0 

8.1 

32.4 

41.0 

2.6 

10 

Red-top,    cut   at   different 

stages 

8.9 

5.2 

7.9 

28.6 

47.5 

1.9 

9 

Red-top,  cut  in  bloom  .     . 

8.7 

4.9 

8.0 

29.9 

46.4 

2.1 

3 

Kentucky  blue-grass      .     . 

21.2 

6.3 

7.8 

23.0 

37.8 

3.9 

10 

Kentucky    blue-grass,    cut 

when  seed  is  in  milk  .     . 

24.4 

7.0 

6.3 

24.5 

34.2 

3.6 

4 

Kentucky    blue-grass,    cut 

when  seed  is  ripe  .     .     . 

27.8 

6.4 

5.8 

23.8 

33.2 

3.0 

4 

Hungarian-grass  .... 

7.7 

6.0 

7.5 

27.7 

49.0 

2.1 

13 

Meadow  fescue     .... 

20.0 

6.8 

7.0 

25.9 

38.4 

2.7 

9 

Italian  rye-grass  .... 

8.5 

6.9 

7.5 

30.5 

45.0 

1.7 

4 

Perennial  rye-grass  .      .      . 

14.0 

7.9 

10.1 

25.4 

40.5 

2.1 

4 

Rowen  (mixed)     .... 

16.6 

6.8 

11.6 

22.5 

39.4 

3.1 

23 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers  . 

12.9 

5.5 

10.1 

27.6 

41.3 

2.6 

17 

Barley  hay,  cut  in  milk    . 

15.0 

4.2 

8.8 

24.7 

44.9 

2.4 

1 

422         COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  II — Continued 


Percentage  Composition 

No.  of 

iiEEDINQ-STUFFS 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

analy- 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Ether 
extract 

ses 

Oat  hay,  cut  in  milk     .     . 

14.0 

5.7 

8.9 

27.4 

41.2 

2.S 

4 

Swamp  hay 

11.6 

6.7 

7.2 

26.6 

45.9 

2.0 

8 

Salt-marsh  hay     .... 

10.4 

7.7 

5.5 

30.0 

44.1 

2.4 

10 

^Vild-oat  grass      .... 

14.3 

3.8 

5.0 

25.0 

48.8 

3.3 

1 

Buttercups 

9.3 

5.6 

9.9 

30.6 

41.1 

3.5 

2 

White  daisy 

10.3 

6.6 

7.7 

30.0 

42.0 

3.4 

2 

Johnson-grass       .... 

10.2 

6.1 

7.2 

2S.5 

45.9 

2.1 

2 

Fresh  grass  — 

Pasture  grass 

80.0 

2.0 

3.5 

4.0 

9.7 

0.8 

— 

Kentucky  blue-grass      .     . 

65.1 

2.8 

4.1 

9.1 

17.6 

1.3 

18 

Timothy,  different  stages  . 

61.6 

2.1 

3.1 

11.8 

20.2 

1.2 

56 

Orchard-grass,  in  bloom    . 

73.0 

2.0 

2.6 

8.2 

13.3 

0.9 

4 

Red-top,  in  bloom     . 

65.3 

2.3 

2.8 

11.0 

17.7 

0.9 

5 

Oat  fodder 

62.2 

2.5 

3.4 

11.2 

19.3 

1.4 

6 

Rye  fodder 

76.6 

1.8 

2.6 

11.6 

6.8 

0.6 

/ 

Sorghum  fodder   .... 

79.4 

1.1 

1.3 

6.1 

11.6 

0.5 

11 

Barley  fodder       .... 

79.0 

1.8 

2.7 

7.9 

8.0 

0.6 

1 

Hungarian-grass  .... 

71.1 

1.7 

3.1 

9.2 

14.2 

0.7 

14 

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom  . 

69.9 

1.8 

2.4 

10.8 

14.3 

0.8 

4 

Italian    rye-grass,    coming 

into  bloom 

73.2 

2.5 

3.1 

6.8 

13.3 

1.3 

24 

Tall  oat-grass,  in  bloom    . 

69.5 

2.0 

2.4 

9.4 

15.8 

0.9 

3 

Japanese  millet    .... 

75.0 

1.5 

2.1 

7.8 

13.1 

0.5 

12 

Barnyard  millet  .... 

75.0 

1.9 

2.4 

7.0 

13.1 

0.6 

2 

Hay  from  legumes  — 

Red  clover 

15.3 

6.2 

12.3 

24.8 

38.1 

3.3 

38 

Red  clover  in  bloom  .     .     . 

20.8 

6.6 

12.4 

21.9 

33.8 

4.5 

6 

Red  clover,  mammoth  .     . 

21.2 

6.1 

10.7 

24.5 

33.6 

3.9 

10 

Alsike  clover 

9.7 

8.3 

12.8 

25.6 

40.7 

2.9 

9 

White  clover 

9.7 

8.3 

15.7 

24.1 

39.3 

2.9 

7 

Crimson  clover     .... 

9.6 

8.6 

15.2 

27.2 

36.6 

2.8 

7 

Japan  clover 

11.0 

8.5 

13.8 

24.0 

39.0 

3.7 

2 

Alfalfa 

8.4 

7.4 

14.3 

25.0 

42.7 

2.2 

21 

Cowpea 

10.5 

14.2 

8.9 

21.2 

42.6 

2.6 

17 

Soybean       

11.8 

7.0 

14.9 

24.2 

37.8 

4.3 

12 

Pea  vine 

15.0 

6.7 

13.7 

24.7 

37.6 

2.3 

1 

Vetch 

11.3 

7.9 

17.0 

25.4 

36.1 

2.3 

5 

Flat  pea       

8.4 

7.9 

22.9 

2G.2 

31.4 

3.2 

5 

Peanut  vines  (without  nuts) 

7.0 

10.8 

10.7 

23.6 

42.7 

4.6 

6 

Fresh  legumes  — 

Red  clover,  different  stages 

70.8 

2.1 

4.4 

8.1 

13.5 

1.1 

43 

Alsike  clover 

74.8 

2.0 

3.9 

7.4 

11.0 

0.9 

4 

Crimson  clover     .... 

80.9 

1.7 

3.1 

5.2 

8.4 

0.7 

3 

Alfalfa 

71.8 

2.7 

4.8 

7.4 

12.3 

1.0 

23 

Cowpea 

83.6 

1.7 

2.4 

4.8 

7.1 

0.4 

10 

COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS 


423 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Percentage  Composition 

No.  of 

Feeding-stuffs 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

analy- 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Ether 
extract 

ses 

Soybean      

75.1 

2.6 

4.0 

6.7 

10.6 

1.0 

27 

Horse  bean 

84.2 

1.2 

2.8 

4.9 

6.5 

0.4 

2 

Straw  — 

Wheat 

9.6 

4.2 

3.4 

38.1 

43.4 

1.3 

7 

Rye 

7.1 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46.6 

1.2 

7 

Oat 

9.2 

5.1 

4.0 

37.0 

42.4 

2.3 

12 

Barley 

14.2 

5.7 

3.5 

36.0 

39.0 

1.5 

97 

Wheat  chaff 

14.3 

9.2 

4.5 

36.0 

34.6 

1.4 

— 

Oat  chaff 

14.3 

10.0 

4.0 

34.0 

36.2 

1.5 

— 

Buckwheat-straw      .     .     . 

9.9 

5.5 

5.2 

43.0 

35.1 

1.3 

3 

Soybean      

10.1 

5.8 

4.6 

40.4 

37.4 

1.7 

4 

Horse  bean 

9.2 

8.7 

8.8 

37.6 

34.3 

1.4 

1 

Silage  — 

Corn  (immature) .... 

79.1 

1.4 

1.7 

6.0 

11.0 

0.8 

99 

Sorghum 

76.1 

1.1 

0.8 

6.4 

15.3 

0.3 

6 

Red  clover 

72.0 

2.6 

4.2 

8.4 

11.6 

1.2 

5 

Soybean      

74.2 

2.8 

4.1 

9.7 

6.9 

2.2 

1 

Cowpea  vine 

79.3 

2.9 

2.7 

6.0 

7.6 

1.5 

2 

Barnyard  millet  and  soy- 

bean     

79.0 

2.8 

2.8 

7.2 

7.2 

1.0 

9 

Corn  and  soybean    .     .     . 

76.0 

2.4 

2.5 

7.2 

11.1 

0.8 

4 

Rye 

80.8 

1.6 

2.4 

5.8 

9.2 

0.3 

1 

Roots  and  tubers  — 

Potato 

79.1 

0.9 

2.1 

0.4 

17.4 

0.1 

41 

Beets,  common 

88.5 

1.0 

1.5 

0.9 

8.0 

0.1 

9 

Beets,  sugar     . 

86.5 

0.9 

1.8 

0.9 

9.8 

0.1 

19 

Beet,  mangel 

90.9 

1.1 

1.4 

0.9 

5.5 

0.2 

9 

Turnip    .      . 

90.1 

0.9 

1.3 

1.2 

6.3 

0.2 

8 

Rutabaga    . 

88.6 

1.2 

1.2 

1.3 

7.5 

0.2 

4 

Carrot    .     . 

88.6 

1.0 

1.1 

1.3 

7.6 

0.4 

8 

Parsnip  .     . 

88.3 

0.7 

1.6 

1.0 

10.2 

0.2 

— 

Artichoke    . 

79.5 

1.0 

2.6 

0.8 

15.9 

0.2 

2 

Sweet-potato 

68.3 

1.1 

1.9 

1.1 

26.8 

0.7 

48 

Miscellaneous 

Cabbage      

90.0 

0.8 

2.6 

0.9 

5.5 

0.2 

1 

Sugar-beet  leaves 

88.0 

2.4 

2.6 

2.2 

4.4 

0.4 

— 

Pumpkin  (field)    . 

90.9 

0.5 

1.3 

1.7 

5.2 

0.4 

— 

Prickly  comfrey 

88.4 

2.2 

2.4 

1.6 

5.1 

0.3 

41 

Rape       .     .     . 

84.5 

2.0 

2.3 

2.6 

8.4 

0.5 

2 

Apples    .     .     . 

80.8 

0.4 

0.7 

1.2 

16.6 

0.4 

3 

Cow's  milk 

87.2 

0.7 

3.6 

— 

4.9 

3.7 

793 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum 

74.6 

1.6 

17.6 

— 

2.7 

3.6 

42 

Skim-milk,  gravity  . 

90.4 

0.7 

3.3 

— 

4.7 

0.9 

96 

Skim-milk,  centrifugal 

90.6 

0.7 

3.1 

— 

5.3 

0.3 

97 

424 


COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  II  —  Continued 


Percentage  Composition 

No.  of 
analy- 

Feedinq-stuffs 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitro- 

Ether 
extract 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

gen-free 
extract 

ses 

Buttermilk 

90.1 

0.7 

4.0 



4.0 

1.1 

85 

Whcv 

93.8 

0.4 

0.6 

— 

5.1 

0.1 

46 

Dried  blood 

8.5 

4.7 

84.4 

— 

— 

2.5 

3 

Meat  scrap 

10.7 

4.1 

71.2 

— 

0.3 

13.7 

144 

Dried  fish    ...     . 

. 

10.8 

29.2 

48.4 

— 

— 

11.6 

6 

Beet  pulp  (wet)    . 

. 

89.8 

0.6 

0.9 

2.4 

6.3 

— 

116 

Beet  molasses 

. 

20.8 

10.6 

9.1 

— 

59.5 

— 

35 

Apple  pomace 

, 

83.0 

0.6 

1.0 

2.9 

11.6 

0.9 

6 

SorKhum  bagasse 

, 

83.9 

0.6 

0.6 

3.2 

11.71 

— 

2 

Distillery  slops     . 

93.7 

0.2 

1.9 

0.6 

2.8 

0.9 

1 

Dried  sediment  from  dis- 

tillery slops       .... 

5.0 

11.3 

27.4 

8.0 

36.1 

12.3 

1 

1  Includes  fat  (sorghum  bagasse). 


T.\BLE  III.  —  Digestible  Nutrients  in  1  lb.  of  the  More  Common 
Feeding-stuffs  (Calculations  by  J.  L.  Stone) 


Kind  and  Amount  of  Feed 


Total 
Dry 

Mat- 
ter 


Pounds  of  Digestible 

Nutrients 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
+  (fat  X 
2.25) 


Total 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


Soiling  fodder  — 

Fodder  corn 

Peas-and-oats 

Peas-and-barley 

(Practically  the  same  as  peas-and-oats) 

Red  clover 

Alfalfa 

Hungarian-grass 

Corn  silage 

Roots  and  tubers  — 

Potatoes 

Beet,  mangel 

Beet,  sugar 

Carrot 

Flat  turnip 

Hay  and  straw  — 

Timothy 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover       .... 

Hungarian  hay 

Red  clover  hay 


.20 
.16 
.16 

.29 
.28 
.29 
.21 


.21 
.09 
.13 
.11 
.10 


.87 
.87 
.92 
.85 


.010 
.018 
.017 

.029 
.039 
.020 
.009 


.009 
.011 
.011 
.008 
.010 

.028 
.062 
.045 
.068 


.125 
.076 
.077 

.164 
.138 
.169 
.129 


.165 
.056 
.104 
.082 
.077 


.465 
.460 
.546 
.396 


.135 
.094 
.094 

.193 
.177 
.189 
.138 


.174 
.067 
.115 
.090 
.087 

.493 
.522 
.591 
.464 


12.5 

4.2 

4.5 

5.6 
3.5 
8.4 
14.3 


1:  18.3 
1:5.1 
1:  9.4 
1  :  10.3 
1:7.7 


16.6 

7.4 

12.1 

5.8 


DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS 


425 


Table  III  —  Continued 


Kind  and  Amount  of  Feed 


Total 
Dry 
Mat- 


Pounds  OF  Digestible 
Nutrients 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
+  (fat  X 
2.25) 


Total 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


Alfalfa  hay 
Corn  fodder  . 
Corn  stover  . 
Pea-vine  straw 
Bean-straw 
Wheat-straw  . 
Oat-straw  . 

Grain  — 
Corn  (average) 
Wheat  .  .  . 
Rye  .  .  .  . 
Barley  .  .  . 
Oats  .  .  . 
Buckwheat 
Peas 


Mill  products  — 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 

Dark  feeding  flour 

Low-grade  flour 

Rye  bran 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

By-products  — 

Malt-sprouts        

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 

Buffalo  gluten  feed 

Chicago  gluten  meal 

Distillers'  dried  grains,  Bile's  xxxx 

Hominy  chops 

Linseed  meal  (old  process)  .  .  . 
Linseed  meal  (new  process)  .  .  . 
Cottonseed  meal 

Miscellaneous  — 

Cabbage     

Sugar-beet  leaves 

Pea-vine  silage 

Sugar-beet  pulp 

Beet  molasses 

Apple  pomace 

Apples 

Skim-milk,  centrifugal  .  .  .  . 
Buttermilk 


.92 
.58 
.60 
.86 
.95 
.90 
.91 


.89 
.90 

.88 
.89 
.89 
.87 
.90 


.85 
.88 
.88 
.90 


.90 

.87 


.90 
.24 
.92 
.90 
.88 
.92 
.89 
.91 
.90 
.92 


.15 

.12 

.27 

.10 

.79 

.233 

.19 

.094 

.10 


.110 
.025 
.017 
.043 
.036 
.004 
.012 


.079 
.102 
.099 
.087 
.092 
.077 
.168 

.044 
.122 
.128 
.135 
.082 
.115 
.074 
.220 

.186 
.039 
.157 
.232 
.322 
.248 
.075 
.293 
.282 
.372 


.018 
.017 
.025 
.006 
.091 
.011 
.007 
.029 
.039 


.423 
.373 
.340 
.341 
.397 
.372 
.404 


.764 
.730 
.700 
.692 
.568 
.533 
.534 


.665 
.453 
.607 
.658 
.647 
.548 
.347 
.456 

.409 
.125 

.478 
.699 
.468 
.552 
.705 
.485 
.464 
.444 

.091 
.051 
.141 
.073 
.595 
.164 
.188 
.059 
.065 


.533 
.398 
.357 
.384 
.433 
.376 
.416 

.843 
.832 
.799 
.779 
.660 
.610 
.702 

.709 
.575 
.735 
.793 
.729 
.663 
.421 
.676 

.595 
.164 
.635 
.931 
.790 
.800 
.780 
.778 
.746 
.816 

.109 
.068 
.166 
.079 
.686 
.175 
.195 
.088 
.104 


1:3.8 
1:  14.C 
1:  19.C 
1:7.9 
1:  ll.C 
1:93 
1 :  33.e 


1:9.7 
1:7.2 
1:7.1 
1:7.9 
1:6.2 
1:6.9 
1:3.2 


1:  15.1 

1:3.7 

1:4.7 

1:4.9 

1:7.9 

1:4.8 

1:4.7 

1:2.1 


1:2.2 
1  :3.2 
1:3 
1:3 
1:  1.5 
1:  2.2 
1:9.4 
1:  1.7 
1:  1.6 
1:  1.2 

1:5.1 
1:3 
1:5.6 
1:  12 
1:  6.5 
1 :  14.9 
1 :  26.8 
1:  2 
1:  1.7 


426        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  IV.    Average  Fertilizing  Constituents  in  American  Feeding-stuffs 


Name  of  Feed 


Concentrates 

Corn,  all  analyses        .     .     . 

Corn  cob 

Corn-and-cob  meal     .     .     . 

Corn  bran 

Gluten  meal 

Germ  meal 

Starch  refuse 

Grano-gluten 

Hominy  chops 

Glucose  meal 

Sugar  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Wheat 

High-grade  flour  .... 
Low-grade  flour  .... 
Dark  feeding  flour       .     .     . 

"Wheat  bran        

Wheat  shorts 

Wheat  middlings  .... 
Wheat  screenings  .... 

Rye 

Rye  bran 

Rye  shorts 

Barley 

Malt-sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  wet  . 
Brewers'  grains,  dried 

Oats 

Oat  feed  or  shorts       .     .     . 

Oat  hulls 

Rice 

Rice  hulls 

Rice  bran 

Rice  polish 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  hulls  .... 
Buckwheat  bran  .... 
Buckwheat  middlings      .     . 

Sorghum  seed 

Broom-corn  seed    .... 

Millet        

Flax  seed 

Linseed  meal  (old  process)  . 
Linseed  meal  (new  process) 

Cottonseed         

Cottonseed  meal     .... 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Lbs. 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

18.2 

7.0 

4.0 

3.9 

0.6 

6.0 

13.6 

5.7 

4.7 

17.9 

10.1 

6.2 

54.8 

3.3 

0.5 

34.7 

3.9 

2.1 

7.6 

2.9 

1.5 

49.8 

5.1 

1.5 

16.8 

9.8 

4.9 

57.7 

36.3 

4.1 

0.3 

40.0 

3.7 

0.4 

19.0 

5.5 

8.7 

19.2 

5.7 

5.4 

28.9 

5.6 

3.5 

29.4 

21.4 

10.9 

24.6 

26.9 

15.2 

28.2 

13.5 

5.9 

26.3 

9.5 

6.3 

20.0 

11.7 

8.4 

18.1 

8.6 

5.8 

23.3 

22.8 

14.0 

18.4 

12.6 

8.1 

19.2 

7.9 

4.8 

42.1 

17.4 

19.9 

10.7. 

4.2 

0.5 

40.0 

16.1 

2.0 

18.2 

7.8 

4.8 

12.8 

6.1 

7.2 

5.3 

1.6 

4.9 

11.8 

1.8 

0.9 

5.1 

1.7 

1.4 

19.0 

2.9 

2.4 

19.0 

26.7 

7.1 

17.3 

6.9 

3.0 

7.3 

4.3 

14.7 

20.2 

4.2 

12.7 

42.7 

12.3 

11.4 

14.6 

8.4 

3.4 

15.8 

7.2 

5.2 

17.4 

6.5 

3.3 

36.2 

13.9 

10.3 

54.2 

16.6 

13.7 

60.0 

17.4 

13.4 

29.4 

10.5 

10.9 

72.5 

30.4 

15.8 

FERTILIZING    VALUES  IN  FEEDING-STUFFS 


427 


Table  IV  —  Continued 


Name  of  Food 


Concentrates 

Cottonseed  hulls    .... 

Cocoanut  cake  

Palm-nut  cake 

Sunflower  seed 

Sunflower-seed  cakes  .     .     . 

Peanut  cake       

Rape-seed  cake      .... 

Peas 

Soybean   

Horse  bean 

Roughage 
Fodder  corn  — 

Fodder  corn,  green 
Fodder  corn,  field-cured 

Fresh  grass  — 

Pasture  grasses 

Kentucky  blue-grass  .     .     . 
Timothy,  different  stages     . 
Orchard-grass,  in  bloom  . 
Red-top,  in  bloom       .     .     . 
Oat  forage  in  mUk  .... 

Rye  forage 

Sorghum  fodder  .... 
Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom  . 
Hungarian-grass     .... 

Hay  — 

Timothy  (all  analyses)     .     . 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top 

Kentucky  blue-grass  .  .  . 
Hungarian-grass     .... 

Mixed  grasses 

Rowen  (mixed)  .... 
Meadow  fescue  .... 
Mixed  grasses  and  clover  . 
Soybean  hay 

Straw  — 

Wheat 

Rve 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat  chaff 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Lbs. 


Nitrogen 


Lbs. 

6.7 
31.5 
26.9 
26.1 
52.5 
76.2 
49.9 
37.9 
53.6 
42.6 


2.9 

7.2 


5.6 
6.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 
5.4 
4.2 
2.1 
3.8 
5.0 


9.4 
12.9 
12.6 
12.5 
12.1 
11.9 
18.6 
11.2 
16.2 
23.8 


5.0 
5.0 

5.8 
7.0 
7.2 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Lbs. 

4.3 
16.0 
11.0 
12.2 
21.5 
20.0 
20.0 

8.4 
10.4 
12.0 


1.1 
5.4 


2.6 

2.6 
1.6 

1.3 
2.5 
0.7 

1.2 


3.3 
3.7 
3.6 
4.0 
4.3 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 

6.7 


2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 

3.8 


428        COMPUTING    THE   RATION  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table   IV  —  Continued 


Name  of  Food 


Fresh  legumes—     Roughage 
Red  clover,  dififerent  stages 

Alsike,  bloom 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soybean    

Legume  hay  and  straw  — 

Red  clover,  medium    .... 

Red  clover,  mammoth     .     .     . 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soybean  straw 

Pea-vine  straw 

Silage  — 

Corn 

Roots  and  tubers  — 

Potato 

Beet,  common 

Beet,  sugar 

Beet,  mangel 

Flat  turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Miscellaneous 

Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar-beet  leaves 

Pumpkin,  garden 

Prickly  comfrey 

Rape 

Dried  blood        

Meat  scrap 

Dried  fish 

Beet  pulp,  wet 

Beet  molasses 

Cow's  milk 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum     . 
Skim-milk,  gravity      .... 
Skim-milk,  centrifugal     . 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Lbs. 


•vt:* Phosphoric 

Nitrogen  ^^j^ 


Lbs. 

7.0 
6.2 
5.0 
7.7 
3.8 
6.4 


19.7 
17.1 
20.5 
25.1 
24.3 
21.9 
14.3 
17.5 
14.3 


4.3 


3.4 

1.6 

2.4 

0.8 

2.9 

0.8 

2.2 

0.9 

2.1 

0.9 

1.9 

1.2 

1.8 

0.9 

2.6 

2.0 

4.2 

1.4 

4.2 

1.1 

3.8 

2.5 

4.2 

1.5 

2.9 

1.6 

3.7 

1.2 

3.5 

1.2 

135.0 

13.5 

114.0 

81.1 

77.4 

140.0 

1.4 

0.3 

14.5 

0.5 

5.8 

1.9 

28.2 

6.6 

5.6 

2.0 

5.0 

2.1 

6.4 

1.7 

1.0 

1.1 

Lbs. 

1.5 
1.1 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.4 


5.5 
5.2 
5.0 

7.8 
4.0 
5.1 
5.2 
4.0 
3.5 


1.1 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

External  Parasites  of  Animals 

The  many  diseases  of  farm  live-stock  cannot  be  treated  in  a  book 
of  this  kind,  and  very  brief  advice  might  be  more  dangerous  than  useful ; 
but  the  ticks,  lice,  fleas,  and  similar  things  that  infest  animals  may  be 
included.  The  spraying  of  live-stock  is  as  important,  in  many  cases,  as 
the  spraying  of  plants. 

Handling  the  cattle-tick,  or  Texas-fever  tick  (Margaropus  annulatus) 
(H.  W.  Graybill,  Bur.  Animal  Ind.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

On  the  pasture  there  are  three  stages  of  the  tick  —  the  engorged 
female,  the  egg,  and  the  larva  ;  and  on  the  host  are  four  stages  —  the 
larva,  the  nymph,  the  sexually  mature  adult  of  both  sexes,  and  the 
engorged  condition  of  the  female. 

Animals  may  be  freed  of  ticks  in  two  ways.  They  may  be  treated 
with  an  agent  that  will  destroy  all  the  ticks  present,  or  they  may  be 
rotated  at  proper  intervals  on  tick-free  fields  until  all  the  ticks  have 
dropped. 

Dips  for  cattle-ticks,  their  preparation  and  use 

Crude  petroleum.  —  Various  kinds  of  crude  petroleum  have  been 
used  with  more  or  less  success  in  destroying  ticks.  The  heavier 
varieties  of  oil  are  very  injurious  to  cattle.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
very  light  oils  are  so  volatile  that  their  effect  lasts  but  a  short  time 
thus  rendering  them  less  efficient.  The  petroleum  known  as  Beau- 
mont oil,  obtained  from  Texas  wells,  has  given  the  best  results.  The 
best  grade  of  this  oil  to  use  is  one  that  has  a  specific  gravity  ranging 
from  22j°  to  24^°  Beaume,  containing  \\  to  I2  per  cent  of  sulfur, 
and  40  per  cent  of  the  bulk  of  which  boils  between  200°  and  300°  C. 
The  oil  may  be  applied  by  employing  a  spray  pump  or  a  dipping  vat. 

Animals  that  have  been  dipped  in  crude  oil,  especially  during  warm 

429 


430  EXTERNAL   PARASITES   OF  ANIMALS 

weather,  should  not  be  driven  any  great  distance  immediately  after- 
wards, and  should  be  provided  with  shade  and  an  abundance  of  water. 
Unless  these  precautions  are  observed  serious  injur}^  and  losses  may 
result. 

Emulsions  of  crude  petroleum.  —  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  best 
agent  to  use  is  an  emulsion  of  crude  petroleum,  preferably  Beaumont 
crude  petroleum.  The  use  of  the  emulsion  makes  the  treatment  less 
expensive  than  when  the  oil  alone  is  used.  The  emulsion  is  not  so 
injurious  to  the  cattle  and  is  almost  if  not  quite  as  effective  as  the  oil 
alone.  The  formula  for  preparing  an  emulsion  of  crude  petroleum  is 
as  follows  :  — 

Hard  soap 1  lb. 

Soft  or  freestone  water 1  gal. 

Beaumont  crude  petroleum 4  gal. 

Making  five  gallons  of  80  per  cent  stock  emulsion. 

When  a  greater  quantity  of  stock  emulsion  is  desired,  each  of  the 
quantities  in  the  above  formula  should  be  multiplied  by  such  a  number 
as  to  furnish  the  required  amount.  For  example,  if  it  should  be  con- 
venient to  mix  10  gallons  at  one  time,  the  quantities  would  have  to 
be  multiplied  by  2  and  if  15  gallons  were  desired,  they  would  have 
to  be  multiplied  by  3,  and  so  on. 

In  preparing  the  emulsion  the  soap  should  be  shaved  up  and  placed  in 
a  kettle  or  caldron  containing  the  required  amount  of  water.  The 
water  should  be  brought  to  a  boil  and  stirred  until  the  soap  is  entirely 
dissolved.  Enough  water  should  be  added  to  make  up  for  the  loss  by 
evaporation  during  this  process.  The  soap  solution  and  the  required 
amount  of  oil  are  then  placed  in  a  barrel  or  some  other  convenient  re- 
ceptacle, and  mixed.  The  mixing  maybe  effected  by  the  use  of  a  spray 
pump,  pumping  the  mixture  through  and  through  the  pump  until  the 
emulsion  is  formed.  A  convenient  and  time-saving  method  is  to  do 
the  mixing  in  a  barrel  by  first  pouring  in  one  part  of  hot  soap  solution 
and  then  four  parts  of  crude  petroleum,  and  repeating  this  until  the 
barrel  is  filled.  The  oil  should  be  poured  in  with  as  much  force  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  mixture  stirred  constantly  with  a  long  paddle  until  the  oil 
is  completely  emulsified.  The  mixing  is  facilitated  also  by  dipping 
up  the  mixture  and  pouring  it  back  with  a  pail.  If  made  properly,  this 
stock  emulsion  is  permanent,  and  will  keep  indefinitely. 


TEXAS   TICKS  431 

To  prepare  the  stock  emulsion  for  use,  it  is  diluted  with  water  to  a 
20  or  25  per  cent  emulsion.  In  order  to  obtain  a  20  per  cent  emulsion 
of  oil,  it  is  necessary  to  use  one  part  of  the  stock  emulsion  to  three  parts 
of  water,  and  for  a  25  per  cent  emulsion,  one  part  of  stock  emulsion 
to  2\  parts  of  water.  The  stock  emulsion  is  permanent,  but  the  diluted 
emulsion  does  not  remain  uniformly  mixed,  so  that  if  allowed  to  stand 
it  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  by  stirring  before  using.  Only  rain 
or  freestone  water  should  be  used  for  diluting,  and  if  this  is  not  available, 
the  water  should  be  "  softened  "  by  adding  a  sufficient  amount  of  con- 
centrated lye,  sal  soda,  or  washing  powder.  Care  should  be  observed  in 
this  process  not  to  use  an  excess  of  these  preparations. 

An  80  per  cent  stock  emulsion  is  on  the  market,  and  much  time  and 
labor  can  be  saved  by  obtaining  this  instead  of  making  the  emulsion. 
To  prepare  it  for  use,  it  should  be  diluted  in  the  same  manner  as  in- 
dicated above  for  the  home-made  stock  emulsion. 

The  arsenical  dip.  —  This  dip  is  used  considerably,  on  account  of  its 
cheapness  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  prepared.  In  general,  it  has 
proved  very  effective  in  destroying  ticks,  and  is  less  likely  than  crude 
petroleum  or  emulsions  of  the  same  to  injure  cattle  when  dipping  has 
to  be  done  in  hot  weather.  Some  injury  to  the  skin  is,  however, 
likely  to  occur  when  the  arsenical  mixture  is  used,  and  this  injury, 
which  will  be  so  slight  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable  if  the  cattle  are  prop- 
erly handled,  is  hable  to  be  serious  if  the  cattle  are  driven  any  distance, 
especially  if  allowed  to  run  while  being  driven  within  a  week  after 
treatment.  The  formula  given  below  for  making  an  arsenical  dip  is 
the  one  most  commonly  used  in  this  country  :  — 

Sodium  carbonate  (sal  soda)        24  lb. 

Arsenic  trioxid  (white  arsenic) 8  lb. 

Pine  tar 1  gal. 

Sufficient  water  to  make  500  gallons. 

If  a  stronger  arsenical  dip  is  desired,  ten  pounds  of  arsenic  may  be 
used  in  place  of  eight  pounds,  but  in  general  the  stronger  solution 
should  not  be  used.  In  warm  weather  particularly  it  is  not  advisable 
to  use  a  solution  stronger  than  that  given  in  the  above  formula,  if  the 
animals  are  to  be  treated  every  two  weeks. 

In  preparing  the  dip,  a  large  caldron  or  galvanized  tank  is  required 
for  heating  the  water  in  which  to  dissolve  the  chemicals.  Thirty  or 
forty  gallons  of  water  should  be  placed  in  the  caldron  or  tank  and 


432  EXTERNAL   PARASITES   OF  ANIMALS 

brought  to  a  boil.  The  sodium  carbonate  is  then  added  and  dissolved 
by  stirring.  When  this  is  accomplished,  the  arsenic  is  added  and 
dissolved  in  a  similar  manner.  The  fire  is  then  drawn  and  the  pine  tar 
added  slowly  in  a  thin  stream  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  dip  by 
constant  stirring.  This  strong  stock  solution  is  diluted  to  500  gallons 
before  using. 

The  diluted  arsenical  solution  may  be  left  in  the  vat  and  used  re- 
peatedly, replenishing  with  the  proper  quantities  of  water  and  stock 
solution  when  necessary.  When  not  in  use,  the  vat  should  be  tightly 
covered  with  a  waterproof  cover  to  prevent  evaporation  on  the  one 
hand  and  further  dilution  by  rain  on  the  other  hand.  Securely  cov- 
ering the  vat  when  not  in  use  also  lessens  the  risk  of  accidental  poison- 
ing of  stock  and  human  beings. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  arsenic  is  a  dangerous  poison,  great  care 
must  be  observed  in  making  and  using  the  arsenical  dip.  From  the 
time  the  arsenic  is  procured  from  the  druggist  until  the  last  particle 
of  unused  residue  is  properly  disposed  of,  the  most  scrupulous  care 
should  be  taken  in  handling  this  poison.  Guessing  at  weights  or 
measures  or  carelessness  in  any  particular  is  liable  to  result  in  great 
damage,  and  not  only  may  valuable  live-stock  be  destroyed,  but  human 
beings  may  lose  their  lives  as  well. 

In  the  use  of  arsenical  dips  care  should  be  taken  not  only  to  avoid 
swallowing  any  of  the  dip,  but  persons  using  the  dip  should  also  bear 
in  mind  the  possibility  of  absorbing  arsenic  through  cuts,  scratches,  or 
abrasions  of  the  skin,  and  the  possibility  of  absorbing  arsenic  by  in- 
halation of  vapors  from  the  boiler  in  which  the  dip  is  prepared  or  by 
the  inhalation  of  the  finely  divided  spray  when  the  spray  pump  is  used. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  the  absorption  of  even  very  small  quan- 
tities of  arsenic,  if  repeated  from  day  to  day,  is  liable  ultimately  to  re- 
sult in  arsenical  poisoning. 

Cattle  should  always  be  watered  a  short  time  before  they  are  dipped. 
After  they  emerge  from  the  vat  they  should  be  kept  on  a  draining-floor 
until  the  dip  ceases  to  run  from  their  bodies  ;  then  they  should  be  placed 
in  a  yard  free  of  vegetation  until  they  are  entirely  dry.  If  cattle  are 
allowed  to  drain  in  places  where  pools  of  dip  collect,  from  which  they 
may  drink,  or  are  turned  at  once  on  the  pasture,  where  the  dip  will 
run  from  their  bodies  on  the  grass  and  other  vegetation,  serious  losses 
are  liable  to  result.     Crowding  the  animals  before  they  are  dry  should 


TEXAS   TICKS  433 

also  be  avoided,  and  they  should  not  be  driven  any  considerable  dis- 
tance within  a  week  after  dipping,  especially  in  hot  weather.  If  many 
repeated  treatments  are  given,  the  cattle  should  not  be  treated  oftener 
than  every  two  weeks. 

In  addition  to  protecting  vats  properly  containing  arsenical  dip  when 
not  in  use,  another  precaution  must  be  observed  when  vats  are  to  be 
emptied  for  cleaning.  The  dip  should  not  be  poured  or  allowed  to  flow 
on  land  and  vegetation  to  which  cattle  or  other  animals  have  access. 
The  best  plan  is  to  run  the  dip  in  a  pit  properly  protected  by  fences. 
The  dip  should  not  be  deposited  where  it  may  be  carried  by  seepage 
into  wells  or  springs  which  supply  water  used  on  the  farm.  The  same 
precautions  should  be  observed  when  animals  are  sprayed  as  when 
they  are  dipped. 

Method  of  spraying. 

Spraying  is  probably  the  most  practicable  and  convenient  way 
of  treating  cattle  on  the  majority  of  farms.  A  good  tj^e  of  pail 
spray  pump,  costing  from  $5  to  $7,  will  be  found  to  be  satisfactory 
for  treating  small  herds.  About  fifteen  feet  of  three-eighths-inch 
high-pressure  hose  is  required,  and  a  type  of  nozzle  furnishing  a 
cone-shaped  spray  of  not  too  wide  an  angle  will  be  found  satis- 
factory. A  nozzle  with  a  very  small  aperture  should  not  be  used, 
because  the  spray  produced  is  too  fine  to  saturate  properly  the  hair 
and  skin  of  the  animals  without  consuming  an  unnecessary  amount 
of  time. 

The  animal  to  be  sprayed  should  be  securely  tied  to  one  of  the  posts 
of  a  board  or  rail  "fence,  or  better  still,  when  convenient,  to  the 
corner  post  in  an  angle  of  the  fence.  This  will  facilitate  the  spray- 
ing by  preventing  the  animal  from  circling  about  to  avoid  the  treat- 
ment, and  will  reduce  the  amount  of  help  necessary.  Every  position 
of  the  body  should  be  thoroughly  treated,  special  attention  being 
given  to  the  head,  dewlap,  brisket,  inside  of  elbows,  inside  of  thighs 
and  flanks,  the  tail,  and  the  depressions  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 
Crude  oil  alone  may  be  used,  but  in  general  a  20  to  25  per  cent 
emulsion  will  be  found  more  satisfactory.  All  the  cattle  on  the 
place  should  be  sprayed  every  two  weeks  with  this  emulsion.  The 
horses  and  mules  should  be  kept  free  of  ticks  by  picking  or  other 
means. 

2p 


434  KXTKRNAL    PARASITES    OF  ANIMALS 

Disinjtdant  fur  ticks  in  infested  stables. 

Eradication  will  be  inucli  facilitated  if  at  the  beginning  of  the  work 
all  litter  and  manure  are  removed  from  stables,  sheds,  and  yards  that 
have  been  occupietl  by  the  cattle,  and  deposited  on  land  where  cattle  are 
not  permitted  to  run.  After  this  is  done,  the  buildings  should  be 
thoroughly  disinfected  to  tlestroy  any  eggs  or  ticks  that  may  be  there. 
For  thi.s  purpose  the  following  substances  may  be  used  : 

1.  A  mi.xture  made  with  not  more  than  U  pounds  of  lime  and 
i  j)()und  of  pure  carbolic  acid  to  each  gallon  of  water. 

2.  Any  coal-tar  creosote  dip  permitted  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  the  official  dipping  of  sheep  for  scabies, 
diluted  to  one-fifth  of  the  maximum  dilution  specified  for  dipping 
sheep. 

A  spray  pump  should  be  used  to  apply  the  disinfectant,  and  the 
walls,  floors,  and  various  fixtures  of  the  buildings  should  be  thoroughly 
sprayed. 

Other  External  Parasites  of  Farm  Animals  (Crosby) 

The  iiiseclicides. 

Following  are  the  leading  insecticidal  substances  used  against  fleas, 
lice,  ticks,  and  other  pests  of  farm  live-stock :  — 

Lime-and-sulfur  dip. 

Unslaked  linic 8  lb. 

Flowers  of  .sulfur 24  lb. 

Water 100  gal. 

Slake  the  lime  in  a  little  water  and  add  the  sulfur,  stirring  constantly. 
Transfer  the  mass  to  25  gallons  of  hot  water,  and  boil  for  two 
hours,  adding  water  to  replace  that  boiled  away.  Let  the  solution 
stand  until  all  .sediment  has  settled  and  then  draw  off  the  clear  liquid 
and  dilute  to  100  gallons.     (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 

Nicotine  8ohUio7is.  —  There  are  now  on  the  market  nicotine  solutions 
with  a  guaranteed  strength  of  from  5  to  40  per  cent  of  nicotine. 
For  uav.  they  should  be  so  diluted  as  to  give  a  solution  containing 
lEo  of  1  per  cent  of  nicotine,  and  I62  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulfur 
should  be  added  to  each  100  gallons  of  the  liquid. 


I 


Eradication  of  ticks  by  rotation  of  fields  (Graybill.) 


nao  A/0  2  a 

OCZIZ.MOVCTHeHEnD. 
TO   niLO  N0.3. 


OATJ  rewowco  by 
roR»G£. 


nCLD  NO.ZA. 
SePT.Z2M0V€  THE 
Hf«0  TO  FIELD 
N0  2B. 


nn.0  N0.3, 
CORN. 
COItTCM. 


neto  NO.  ♦. 

COTTON.  „ 

nr£on  crimson 
Ctoven 


P/?5TUflC:    eCRMOO/J,  \/rrCH,/?NO  BUR  CLOvea. 


nao  NO./  a    . 
srpT2  Movf  rHfHffloTO  nao 

N02A.    HiCP  OUT  ALLnNmALS 
UNTIL  JUlv/,k/HfN  THI5FI£IL0 
Mil  8t  ffltf  or  TICKS  /tNO  ThC 
TmPOmHY  DOUBU  fENU  MAY  BE 
PEMOVEO. 


I  flELD  NO.  I R. 

!  JUHi  15.  MOVE  THEHEHO  TOnELP 

[no.ib.  KEfP  our /lit  animals  „. 

FROM  THIS  D/nC  UNTIL   NOV.  I.UHCN 
I  THIS  HELD  WILL  BE  FREE  OF  TICK5. 


OATS. 

COWPlAi  UNO 

evncioveit. 


HOVE  HERD  TO  FIELD 


C/tmEUILLBEFREE 
OrTlCKSBY  DEC.  20 
BETWEEN  THIS  DATE 
ANDFIBR.IS  MOVE  THE 

HCRO  TO  new  wa* 


COTTON. 

FIYi  ANO 
WINTlr, 


riELO   NO.IB. 
OCT.  IS-  MOVE  THr  HEFtO  TO  FIELD 
N0.2. 


!  P/1STUFIE. 


FIELD  r;,i  I  n         ^ — 

\>«HYI.HINtHiROTQ  P'KTURE  NO.I  B. 
IHEEP  ALL  ANIMAi-a  OVT  OFTHIS 
iFIELO  UNTIL    MAR.I,IMiN  IT.UILLBC 
IFREE  orricKS. 


Fig.  13.  —  Rotation  plan  for  freeing  planta- 
tion in  South  from  ticks  in  4j  mos. 


Fig.  15.  —  Plan  requiring  8  mos. 


FIELD  NO.Z. 

CORN. 

COWFCAS 

niLD  N0.3. 

COTTON  fOUOWCO 

BY  aiiMsoNaovai.vcToi. 
euACLOvat  or  Arc. 

HELD  N0.4: 

evA  coavER 

mVE  THE  HERD  FROM 

This  FIELD  TO  FIELD 

N0.3 

FEBR.  IS.HOIfETNCHCRO 
TO  FIELD  NO  * 

BECOMES  THE  NEh' 
P^STURC 

E 

FIELD  NO  1 
PASTURE. 
OCT  is:  MOVE  HCRO  TO  FIELD  NO.Z. 
PLANT  IN   O/fT.5    AND   FOLLOM  kJITH   CQWPUH 

miD  N0.4t 
COffN. 

COI^EAi. 


FIELD  ND^/i.  I 

OATS.  I 

SORCHUM  ANO  COWPCAS.  I 

OR  1 

MILL  IT  AND  COWPUS. 


.HOyi.RETURN HERO  TO  PASTURE. 


LOTMOi 

AiK.mMon 

HIAO  TO 


L0TN0.2. 

Miyisnm 

MIHD  TO  lOT 
N0.3. 


iTNO.I.    _, 

JULrSHOtt 

HOOTOim 

HO.  2. 


riELD  NO.Z. 
COTTON. 
COUPtAS. 


milium 

[H0J3C 


BE  FREE  OF  TICKS. 


Fig.  14.  — Plan 


requiring  4  mos.,  with 
pasture. 


new 


435 


Fig.  16.  —  Feed-lot  or  soiling  method  of  elimi- 
nating ticks. 


436  EXTERNAL   PARASITES   OF  ANIMALS 

Commercial  dips.  —  There  are  a  large  number  of  these  proprietary- 
dips  on  the  market,  many  of  which  contain  as  the  active  agent  coal- 
tar  derivatives.  Use  only  those  that  have  the  approval  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  follow  closely  the 
directions  given  on  the  container. 

Crude  oil  emulsion  (for  spraying  stock). 

Soap lib. 

Crude  oil 4  gal. 

Water 1  gal. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water,  and  while  still  hot  add  the  oil  slowly 
and  agitate  into  an  emulsion  by  pumping  the  mixture  back  into  itself. 
For  use,  dilute  with  water  so  as  to  secure  a  20  or  30  per  cent 
emulsion  (see  p.  430). 

Lice  powder. 

Gasoline 3  parts 

Crude  carbolic  acid  (90-95  per  cent  strength) 1  part 

Mix  these  together,  and  then  stir  in  enough  plaster  of  Paris  to  take 
up  all  the  moisture.  If  properly  made,  a  dry  pinkish  powder  will  be 
the  result.  If  good  crude  carbolic  acid  of  the  proper  strength  cannot 
be  obtained,  cresol  may  be  substituted,  but  will  not  give  quite  as  good 
results.     Store  in  a  closed  can  or  jar. 

Cresol  disinfecting  soap.  —  Measure  out  3|  quarts  of  raw  linseed 
oil  in  a  four  or  five-gallon  stone  crock  ;  then  weigh  out  in  a  dish  1 
pound  6  ounces  of  commercial  lye  or  "  Babbit's  potash."  Dis- 
solve this  lye  in  as  little  water  as  will  completcl}''  dissolve  it.  Start 
with  2  pint  of  water,  and  if  this  will  not  dissolve  all  the  lye,  add 
more  water  slowly.  Let  this  stand  for  at  least  three  hours  until  the 
lye  is  completely  dissolved  and  the  solution  is  cold  ;  then  add  the  cold 
lye  solution  very  slowly  to  the  linseed  oil,  stirring  constantly.  Not 
less  than  five  minutes  should  be  taken  for  the  adding  of  this  solution  of 
lye  to  the  oil.  After  the  lye  is  added,  continue  the  stirring  until  the 
mixture  is  in  the  condition  and  has  the  texture  of  a  smooth,  homoge- 
neous liquid  soap.  This  ought  not  to  take  more  than  a  half  hour. 
Then,  while  the  soap  is  in  this  liquid  state,  and  before  it  has  a  chance 
to  harden,  add  with  constant  stirring,  8§  quarts  of  commercial 
cresol.     The  cresol   will  blend  perfectly  with  the  soap  solution  and 


INSECTICIDES  FOR  ANIMALS  437 

make  a  clear,  dark  brown  fluid.  The  resulting  solution  of  cresol 
soap  is  then  ready  to  use.  This  cresol  soap  will  mix  in  any  pro- 
portion with  water  and  yield  a  clear  solution.  Use  a  20  per  cent 
solution  for  disinfecting  chicken  houses,  incubators,  etc. 

The  kinds  of  parasites  (Crosby) . 

Following  are  the  leading  external  parasites  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep 
and  swine  (for  parasites  of  poultry,  see  page  377). 

Cattle.  Ox  BOT-FLY  OR  WARBLE-FLY  {Hypoderma  bovis  and  H. 
lineata).  —  Large  lumps  or  warbles  along  the  animal's  back  filled  with 
pus,  within  which  a  large,  thick-bodied  maggot  develops.  When  full 
grown  these  maggots,  about  an  inch  in  length,  work  their  way  out 
through  the  skin,  fall  to  the  earth,  and  there  after  a  time  transform  to 
a  large  blackish  fly  with  yellow  markings.  The  flies  glue  their  eggs 
to  the  hair  of  the  host,  usually  around  the  heels  and  flanks.  The 
eggs  are  licked  off  by  the  animal,  hatch  in  the  mouth  or  oesophagus, 
and  the  larva  bores  its  way  through  the  tissues  until  it  comes  to  lie 
under  the  skin  along  the  back.  The  cattle  have  an  instinctive  dread 
of  the  flies,  and  are  thrown  into  a  panic  by  their  presence.  Badly 
infested  animals  lose  flesh,  and  the  flow  of  milk  is  greatly  reduced  ; 
the  holes  made  in  the  skin  also  decrease  the  value  of  the  hide. 

Treatment.  —  Squeeze  out  and  crush  the  grubs  and  disinfect  the 
sore.  The  practice  of  killing  the  grub  under  the  skin  by  the  application 
of  grease  or  kerosene  is  more  liable  to  cause  an  infection  from  the  de- 
caying maggot  and  produce  a  serious  sore. 

Horn-fly  {Hcematohia  serrata).  —  Flies  considerably  smaller  than 
the  house-fly,  which  they  closely  resemble  in  shape  and  color.  They  at- 
tack cattle  in  great  numbers,  clustering  on  any  part  of  the  body  and 
sucking  blood.  They  have  the  peculiar  habit  of  resting  in  dense 
clusters  on  the  horns.  The  eggs  are  laid  and  the  maggots  develop  in 
fresh  droppings,  and  the  transformation  to  the  fly  takes  place  in  the 
ground. 

Treatment.  —  Spread  out  or  mix  with  lime  the  manure  as  soon  as  de- 
posited, to  prevent  the  development  of  the  maggots.  Let  hogs  run 
with  the  cattle ;  scatter  the  manure.  Spray  the  animals  with  crude 
oil  emulsion  often  enough  to  prevent  attack,  or  apply  train  oil  or 
a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  crude  cottonseed  oil  and  one  pint  of  pine 
tar.     The  last  two  may  be  applied  with  a  large  brush,  and  remain 


438  EXTERNAL   PARASITES   OF  ANIMALS 

effective  fcr  four  or  five  days.  Where  the  flies  have  produced  sores, 
treat  them  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  On  the  range 
where  large  numbers  of  animals  are  to  be  treated,  dip  them  in  a 
dipping  vat  provided  with  a  splash-board  which  will  throw  the 
spray  down  on  the  animal  and  kill  most  of  the  flies.  Use  any  of 
the  oily  dips  recommended  for  the  Texas-fever  tick. 

Cattle  lice  {Ihrmatopinus  spp.  and  Trichodedes  scalaris). — 
Cattle  are  especially  liable  to  become  infested  with  lice  during  the 
winter  and  early  spring.  They  acquire  a  generally  unthrifty  look,  and 
the  flow  of  milk  is  greatly  lessened.  On  young  stock  the  injurious 
effects  are  more  noticeable  ;  lousy  calves  are  thin  and  do  not  make 
the  proper  growth. 

Treatment.  —  When  the  weather  will  permit,  spray  or  wash  infested 
animals  with  a  10  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  or  the  nicotine-and-sulfur 
sheep  dip  as  used  for  sheep  scab. 

Southern  buffalo-gnat  (Simulium  peciianan).  —  A  small  black 
gnat  or  punkie  occurring  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley,  where  it  causes 
immense  loss  to  the  live-stock  interests.  The  larva?  are  aquatic,  and 
are  able  to  develop  only  in  swiftly  running  waters.  The  gnats  appear 
in  great  swarms  in  early  spring  and  attack  cattle,  mules,  horses,  sheep, 
and  other  animals  in  countless  numbers.  They  feed  by  sucking  the 
blood  and  at  the  same  time  inject  a  poison  into  the  wound,  causing 
great  distress  and  producing  an  acute  inflammation.  Animals  in  poor 
condition  from  exposure  or  lack  of  food  are  frequently  killed. 

Treatment.  —  Protect  the  animals  by  smudges  producing  a  dense 
smoke,  or  keep  them  in  dark  stables  until  the  swarms  of  gnats  have 
disappeared.  Working  teams  can  be  protected  by  using  train-oil  or 
the  cotton-seed  oil  and  tar  mixture  advised,  under  Horn-fly.  To 
reduce  the  irritation  caused  by  the  bites,  rub  the  animal  thoroughly 
with  water  of  ammonia  and  give  internally  a  mixture  of  40  to  50 
grains  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  a  pint  of  whiskey,  and  repeat 
the  treatment  every  three  or  four  hours  until  relieved. 

ScREW-woRM  fly  ( Chrysomyia  macellaria) .  —  Whitish  maggots, 
three-fourths  inch  in  length  when  full  grown,  infesting  sores  and  wounds 
of  animals  in  the  Southern  States.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  wounds 
in  masses  of  100  or  more  by  a  bright,  metallic  green  fly  a  little  larger 
than  the  house-fly.  The  maggots  enter  the  wound,  feed  on  the  putrid 
matter  within,  and  as  they  increase  in  size  burrow  into  the  flesh,  fre- 


CATTLE  AND   HORSE  PARASITES  439 

quently  excavating  a  large  cavity.  The  purulent  discharge  from 
such  sores  attracts  other  flies  to  lay  their  eggs,  more  maggots  enter 
the  wound,  and  unless  aid  is  rendered  the  animal  dies.  A  slight  scratch 
or  merely  a  mass  of  blood  from  a  crushed  tick  may  serve  as  a  starting- 
point  for  the  trouble.     The  flies  also  breed  in  decaying  carcasses. 

Treatment.  —  Prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs  by  washing  all  wounds 
as  soon  as  noticed  with  a  disinfectant,  and  then  apply  a  dressing  of 
pine  tar  or  tar  and  grease.  When  wounds  are  found  infested,  dislodge 
the  maggots  by  injections  of  carbolic  acid  diluted  with  30  parts  of 
water,  or  one  of  the  coal-tar  sheep  dips  may  be  used.  After  the  maggots 
have  been  removed  and  the  sore  thoroughly  disinfected,  dress  the 
wound  with  a  coating  of  pine  tar.  Deep  sores  should  be  packed  with 
sterilized  absorbent  cotton. 

By  careful  attention  to  the  destruction  of  garbage,  carcasses,  and  other 
filth  in  which  the  maggots  breed  in  enormous  numbers,  much  loss  may 
be  avoided.  Carcasses  left  to  decay  exposed  to  the  air  about  pastures 
are  constant  sources  of  danger. 

Horse.  Horse  bot-fly  {Gastrophilus  equi).  —  The  light  yellow 
eggs  are  glued  to  the  hairs  on  the  shoulders,  forelegs,  and  under  side 
of  the  body  by  a  brownish  fly  about  three-fourths  inch  in  length. 
By  licking  these  parts  the  egg-cap  is  removed  and  young  maggots  taken 
into  the  mouth.  On  reaching  the  stomach  they  attach  themselves 
to  the  walls  and  remain  there  until  the  following  spring.  When  abun- 
dant they  may  nearly  cover  the  whole  inner  surface  of  the  stomach, 
interfere  with  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices,  and  by  collecting 
near  the  pyloric  opening  prevent  the  natural  passage  of  the  food  from 
the  stomach.  When  mature  they  loosen  their  hold  and  are  voided 
with  the  excrement  in  late  spring.  These  full-grown  bots  are 
about  three-fourths  inch  in  length  ;  they  burrow  into  the  ground 
where  the  pupal  stage  is  passed.  The  flies  emerge  thuiy  or  forty 
days  later. 

Treatment.  —  Remove  the  eggs  within  a  week  after  they  have  been 
deposited  by  clipping  the  hair,  or  destroy  them  by  washing  with  a  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid  in  30  parts  of  warm  water.  When  only  a  few 
bots  are  present  in  the  stomach,  they  do  not  seem  to  cause  the  animal 
inconvenience  ;  when  very  abundant,  they  may  cause  fretting  and 
colic,  and  the  horse  may  loose  flesh.  In  such  cases  consult  a  veteri- 
narian. 


440  EXTERNAL    PARASITES   OF  ANIMALS 

Sheep.  Sheep  bot-fly  or  head-maggot  {CEstris  ovif^).  —  The 
dark  brownish  parent  flics,  somewhat  larger  tlian  tlie  house-fly,  emerge 
during  June  and  July,  and  deposit  living  maggots  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep. 
The  animals  have  an  instinctive  fear  of  the  flies,  and  are  thrown  into 
a  panic  by  their  attack.  The  maggots  work  their  way  up  the  nostril, 
and  find  lodgment  in  the  frontal  sinuses,  where  they  feed  on  the 
mucus.  Their  presence  causes  great  irritation  and  the  discharge  of 
purulent  matter.  Sometimes  the  maggots  penetrate  into  the  brain 
cavity,  and  death  may  result. 

Treatment.  —  It  is  almost  impossible  to  dislodge  the  maggots  by  the 
injection  of  any  substance,  and  such  treatment  is  not  advised.  Never 
try  to  extract  them  with  a  wire.  To  prevent  the  flies  from  depositing 
their  young,  smear  the  sheep's  nose  with  tar  and  grease.  This  is  most 
easily  done  by  placing  in  the  pasture  logs  in  which  holes  have  been 
bored.  Salt  is  placed  in  the  holes,  and  the  edges  smeared  with 
grease  and  tar.  In  trying  to  get  the  salt  the  sheep  will  keep  their  noses 
covered  with  the  tar. 

Sheep  scab  {Psoroptes  communis).  —  The  cause  of  this  disease 
is  a  minute  mite  which  lives  on  the  skin  under  a  scab  or  crust  and  causes 
the  wool  to  fall  out  in  large  irregular  patches.  The  irritation  causes 
intense  itching,  the  sheep  become  restless,  lose  in  weight  and  vitality, 
and  in  severe  cases  die.  The  disease  is  contagious  and  may  be  trans- 
mitted either  directly  from  animal  to  animal  or  by  means  of  infested 
quarters,  cars  or  pasture  fields. 

Treatment.  —  Dip  the  infested  or  suspected  animals  in  some  reliable 
sheep  dip  at  the  temperature  of  about  100°  Fahrenheit  ;  hold  the 
sheep  in  the  liquid  two  or  three  minutes,  and  immerse  the  head  once 
or  twice  just  before  the  sheep  is  released.  Soften  thick  scabs  before 
dipping  by  wetting  with  some  of  the  dip  and  by  rubbing  with  a  smooth 
stick,  taking  care  not  to  draw  blood.  Repeat  the  dipping  in  ten  days 
or  two  weeks  to  kill  any  mites  which  may  have  hatched  from  eggs  since 
the  last  treatment.  After  dipping  do  not  return  the  sheep  to  the  same 
field  in  less  than  thirty  days,  to  avoid  reinfestation.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  return  the  sheep  to  the  same  barn  or  pen,  these  quarters  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected  with  cresol  or  some  other  coal-tar 
dip,  used  at  the  rate  of  one  part  to  50  parts  of  water.  The  addition 
of  whitewash  to  the  disinfectant  will  serve  as  a  marker  and  show  when 
the  work  has  been  thoroughly  done.     Avoid  introducing  the  disease 


SHEEP   AND   SWINE  PARASITES  441 

by  having  all  sheep  brought  from  infested  regions  dipped  before 
delivery. 

Sheep  tick  {Melophagns  ovinus).  —  Reddish  or  gray  brown,  flat- 
tened, wingless  flies  that  infest  sheep  of  all  ages,  but  are  most  in- 
jurious to  lambs.  They  remain  on  the  sheep  throughout  their 
whole  life  cycle.  The  young  are  nourished  within  the  mother  until 
full  grown,  and  are  ready  to  pupate  when  born. 

Treatment.  —  The  nicotine-and-sulfur  dip  has  given  the  best  results 
in  the  control  of  this  pest  ;  many  of  the  commercial  cresol  and  coal-tar 
creosote  dips  are  also  effective.  The  lime-and-sulfur  dip  will  not  kill 
the  ticks.  When  only  a  few  are  to  be  treated,  kerosene  emulsion  may 
be  used  as  a  spray  and  rubbed  into  the  wool. 

Swine.  Hog  louse  (Hcematopinus  suis).  —  Lousy  hogs  are  likely 
to  be  in  a  stunted,  unthrifty  condition,  and  when  badly  infested  the 
skin  becomes  covered  with  scales  and  sores. 

Treatment.  —  Clean  and  whitewash  the  pens  and  sleeping  quarters, 
adding  1  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  to  each  4  gallons  of  the  wl  ite- 
wash.  Spray  or  dip  infested  animals  with  10  per  cent  kerosene 
emulsion,  or  use  the  tobacco-and-sulfur  sheep  dip.  Repeat  the  ap- 
plication in  two  weeks  to  kill  any  lice  that  may  have  escaped.  A 
wallowing  trough  containing  five  to  eight  inches  of  water  on  which  is 
floated  a  thin  layer  of  crude  oil  is  frequently  used  with  success. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

Milk  and  Milk  Products;   D.\iry  Farms 

Dairying  comprises  two  occupations,  —  dairy  husbandry,  or 
the  producing  of  milk  ;  and  dairy  industry,  or  the  marketing  and 
manufacturing  of  milk  and  milk  products.  This  chapter  is  designed 
to  compass  chiefly  some  phases  of  the  latter  subject. 

Composition  of  Milk 
Composition  of  cow's  milk 


Constituents 

Quantity  in 
Average  Milk 

Extent  of  Varia- 
tion in  Normal 
Milk 

Fat                  

Per  Cent 
4.0 
2.6 
0.7 
5.0 
0.7 
87.0 

2.5-8.0 

2.0-3.5 

Albumen 

'Sugar 

Ash 

0.6-0.9 
4.0-6.0 
0.6-0.8 

Water 

84.0-88.0 

Fat  in  milk  is  in  the  form  of  minute  globules  having  a  diameter  of 
1-55(5  to  W66  of  an  inch.  These  float  in  the  milk,  forming  an  emulsion. 
When  highly  magnified,  these  fat  globules  may  be  easily  seen.  In  any 
milk,  many  different  sizes  of  globules  are  found,  but  the  average  size  of 
globules  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey  milk  is  much  larger  than  the  average 
size  of  globules  in  the  milk  given  by  other  breeds.  As  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  fat  is  .93  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  remainder  of  the 
milk  is  about  1.04,  the  fat  globules  always  tend  to  rise.  They  are  more 
or  less  entangled  by  other  constituents  of  the  milk,  and  great  numbers 
of  the  smallest  sized  globules  fail  to  reach  the  top,  or  the  cream  layer 
(Pearson). 

Milk-fat  is  a  mixture  of  several  different  fats  which  are  combinations 

442 


COMPOSITION   OF  MILK 


443 


of  glycerine  and  fatty  acids.     The  principal  fats  and  their  proportion 
in  milk-fat  are  as  follows:  — 

Per  Cent 

Palmitin 40 

Olein , 34 

Myristin 10 

Butyrin 6 

A  few  others  vary  from  1  to  3  per  cent  each. 

Butyrin  is  the  characteristic  butter-fat,  and  is  absent  from  butter 
substitutes,  such  as  oleomargarine.  The  melting-point  of  milk-fat  is 
about  92°  F.  (Pearson). 

Average  composition  of  milk  of  various  kinds  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 


Kind  of 

Water 

Total 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo 
hydrates 

Mineral 

Fuel 
Value 

Milk 

Solids 

(Milk 
Sugar) 

Matters 

Casein 

Albumin 

Total 

Pound 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

^dories 

Woman 

87.58 

12.6 

0.80 

1.21 

2.01 

3.74 

6.37 

0.30 

310 

Cow  .     . 

87.27 

12.8 

2.88 

0.51 

3.39 

3.68 

4.94 

0.72 

310 

Goat 

86.88 

13.1 

2.87 

0.89 

3.76 

4.07 

4.64 

0.85 

315 

Sheep     . 

83.57 

16.4 

4.17 

0.98 

5.15 

6.18 

4.73 

0.96 

410 

Buffalo 

82.16 

4.26 

0.46 

7.51 

4.77 

0.84 

(Indian) 

Zebu .     . 

86.13 

3.03 

4.80 

5.34 

0.70 

Camel    . 

87.13 

3.49 

0.38 

2.87 

5.39 

0.74 

Llama    . 

86.55 

3.00 

0.90 

3.15 

5.60 

0.80 



Reindeer 

67.20 

8.38 

1.51 

17.09 

2.82 

1.49 

Mare 

90.58 

9.9 

1.30 

0.75 

1.14 

5.87 

0.36 



Ass    .     . 

90.12 

10.4 

0.79 

1.06 

1.37 

6.19 

0.47 

215 

Average  composition  of  typical  cow's  milk  (Conn.  Sta.) 


Authority 


English  (Richmond,  1906)  .  .  . 
(Richmond,  1907)  .  .  . 
(Richmond,  1908)        .     .     . 

(Vieth) 

Canadian  (McGill) 

German  (Koenig) 

German  (Fleischmann) 

Dutch  (Fleischmann) 

American  (Van  Slyke) 

(Van  Slyke,  cheese  factory) 

(Voorhees,  Ayrshire)     .     . 

(Voorhees,  Guernsey)  .     . 

(Voorhees,  Holstein)     . 

(Voorhees,  Jersey)   . 

(Voorhees,  Shorthorn) 


Total 

Fat 

Solids 

Solids 

NOT  Fat 

12.70 

3.73 

8.97 

12.64 

3.71 

8.93 

12.69 

3.75 

8.94 

12.90 

4.10 

8.80 

12.62 

3.80 

8.82 

12.83 

3.69 

9.14 

12.25 

3.40 

8.85 

12.00 

3.25 

8.75 

12.90 

3.90 

9.00 

12.60 

3.75 

8.85 

12.70 

3.68 

9.02 

14.48 

5.02 

9.46 

12.12 

3.51 

8.61 

14.34 

4.78 

9.56 

12.45 

3.65 

8.80 

Per  Cent 
OF  Fat 
IN  Solids 


29.37 
29.35 
29.56 
31.78 
30.11 
28.76 
27.25 
27.08 
30.23 
29.76 
29.05 
34.66 
28.96 
33.33 
29.32 


444 


MILK   AND    MILK  PRODUCTS;   DAIRY  FARMS 


The  milk  of  different  breeds. 

The  analyses  of  large  numbers  of  samples  of  milk  given  by  different 
breeds  have  been  made  by  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  and  the  averages  of  fat  for  the  different  breeds  are  :  — 

Per  Cent 

Holstein-Friesian 3.4 

Ayrshire 3.6 

Shorthorn 4.4 

Devon 4.6 

Guernsey 5.3 

Jersey 5.6 

Composition  of  milk  solids  from  six  breeds  of  cows  (Van  Slyke) 


Breed  of  Cow 


Holstein 

American  Holderness 

Devon 

Ayrshire 

Guernsey      .     .     .     . 
Jersey 


Fat 

Casein 

Sugar 

28.0 

27.4 

39.1 

28.1 

26.8 

39.7 

30.1 

27.3 

36.8 

27.3 

26.3 

40.8 

35.1 

24.7 

35.0 

36.4 

25.4 

33.4 

Ash 


5.93 
5.53 
5.52 
5.34 
5.16 
4.82 


Ash  in  cow's  milk  and  its  products  (Simon) 

Whole  milk 0074 

Skim  milk 0074 

Cream        0061 

Buttermilk 0067 

Whey 0065 

Mineral  constituents  in  milk  (Abderhalden) 


Specieh 


Human 
DoK  . 
Swine 
Sheep 
Goat  . 
Cow  . 
Horse 
Rabbit 


Potas- 
sium 


Sodium 

Chlo- 
rine 

Iron 

Cal- 
cium 

Mag- 
nesium 

Phos- 
phor- 
us 

Parts  per  hundred 


066 

.190 

.047 

.0006 

.035 

.004 

.025 

.115 

.058 

.166 

.0014 

.325 

.012 

.222 

.078 

.058 

.076 

.0028 

.178 

.010 

.135 

.810 

.064 

.130 

.0029 

.175 

.090 

.128 

.108 

.046 

.102 

.0025 

.141 

.090 

.124 

.148 

.072 

.137 

.0015 

.119 

.014 

.083 

.087 

.010 

.031 

.0014 

.089 

.008 

.057 

.209 

.147 

.135 

.0014 

.637 

.033 

.435 

0.20 
1.33 
0.80 
0.84 
0.78 
0.70 
0.40 
2.50 


COMPOSITION   OF  MILK 


445 


Variation  in  average  composition  of  574  samples  of  market  butter  samples 
collected  each  month  for  a  period  of  one  year  (Illinois  Experiment 
Station) . 


Month  Collected 


March  }, 

April 

May 

June 

July        . 

August  . 

September 

October 

November 

December 

January 

February 

Average 


Number 

Samples 

each 

Month 


47 
49 
49 
49 
40 
37 
54 
49 
50 
41 
53 
56 


Water 


13.59 
12.94 
13.48 
13.23 
13.92 
13.64 
13.31 
14.05 
13.31 
13.35 
14.16 
13.54 
13.54 


Percent 


Fat 


82.73 
83.34 

82.97 
83.58 
82.83 
83.57 
83.64 
82.73 
83.53 
83.56 
82.59 
83.29 
83.20 


Salt 


Casein  and 
Ash 


0.74 
0.85 
0.82 
0.94 
0.99 
1.04 
0.90 


Nutrients  and  energy  in  1  pound  of  the  water-free  edible  portion  of 
several  food  materials  in  comparison  with  milk  (United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture) . 


Fooo  Materialb 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Mineral 
Matter 

Fuel 

Value 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk  (0.3  per  cent  fat) 

Buttermilk 

Cheese              

Pound 

0.25 
.36 
.33 
.39 

Pound 

0.31 
.03 
.06 
.52 
.40 
.66 
.01 
.02 
.01 
.03 

Pound 

0.39 
.55 
.53 
.03 

.85 
.82 
.85 
.92 

Pound 
0.05 
.06 
.08 
.06 
.03 
.08 
.01 
.01 
.04 
.02 

Calories 

2,475 
1,835 
1,845 
2,990 

Beef,  round 

Smoked  ham 

Wheat  flour 

Wheat  bread        

Potatoes     ...     

Apples 

.57 
.26 
.13 
.15 
.10 
.03 

2,750 
3.275 
1,865 
1,865 
1,790 
1,885 

446  MILK   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS ;    DAIRY  FARMS 

Average  composition  of  milk  products  and  other  food  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 


Material 


Whole  milk 

Skim  milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Condensed  milk,  unsweetened 

Condensed  milk,  sweetened      .     . 

Butter 

Cheese,  American  Cheddar       .     . 

Cheese,  cottage 

Cheese,  Swiss 

Milk  powder  (from  skimmed  milk) 

Kephir 

Koumiss 

Infant  and  invalid  foods,  farina- 
ceous      

Infant  and  invalid  foods  contain- 
ing milk  and  starches 

Infant  and  invalid  foods,  malted 
preparations 

Beef,  sirloin  steak 

Eggs  as  purchased 

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process 

Wheat  bread,  white 

Beans,  baked 

Potatoes,  as  purchased   .... 

Apples,  as  purchased       .... 


Refuse 


Per  cent 


12.8 
11.2 


Water 


Per  cent 
87.0 
90.5 
74.0 
91.0 
93.0 
71.3 
26.0 
13.0 
33.5 
53.0 
31.4 
3.0 
89.6 
90.7 

9.4 

4.3 

4.2 
54.0 
65.5 
12.0 
35.3 
68.9 
62.6 
63.3 


Pro- 
tein 


Per  cent 

3.3 

3.4 

2.5 

3.0 

1.0 

7.4 

8.2 

1.0 

26.0 

19.6 

27.6 

34.0 

3.1 

2.2 

9.4 

9.6 

12.0 

16.5 

11.9 

11.4 

9.2 

6.9 

1.8 

0  3 


Fat 


Per  cent 

4.0 

.3 

18.5 

.5 

.3 

8.5 

9.6 

83.0 

35.5 

23.2 

34.9 

3.1 

2.0 

2.1 

0.4 

3.8 

1.0 
16.1 
9.3 
1.0 
1.3 
2.5 
0.1 
0.3 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Per  cent 
5.0 
5.1 
4.5 
4.8 
5.0 
11.1 
54.3 

1.5 
2.1 
1.3 
51.9 
4.5 » 
4.12 

79.93 

80.2^ 

79.8^ 


7.51 
53.1 
19.6 
14.7 
10.8 


Ash 


cent 

.7 

.7 

.5 

,7 

,7 

,7 

.9 

,0 

5 

,1 

,8 

0 

,8 

,9 


3.9 

2.1 

3.0 
0.9 
0.9 
0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
0.8 
0.3 


'  Including  2.1  per  cent  alcohol  and  0.8  per  cent  lactic  acid. 
2  Including  1.7  per  cent  alcohol  and  0.9  per  cent  lactic  acid. 
'  Including  6.62  per  cent  soluble  carbohydrates  (sugars). 

*  Including  49.05  per  cent  soluble  carbohydrates  (sugars). 

*  Including  48.39  per  cent  soluble  carbohydrates  (sugars). 


Milk,  Butter,  and  Cheese  Tests 

Babcock  test  for  hutter-fnt  (Pearson). 

A  measured  sample  of  milk  is  mixed  with  strong  sulfuric  acid,  which 
dissolves  all  of  the  milk  constituents  except  the  fat.  The  mixture  of 
milk  and  acid  is  then  subjected  to  centrifugal  force  in  a  specially  con- 
structed machine,  by  whicli  the  fat  is  separated  from  the  heavy  liquid, 
and,  after  the  addition  of  water,  the  fat  is  brought  into  a  part  of  the 
bottle  where  it  can  be  (juickly  measured.  The  entire  test  can  be  made 
in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 


MILK    TESTS  447 

In  detail  the  test  is  made  as  follows  :  The  milk  to  be  sampled  is 
thoroughly  mixed  by  pouring  it  several  times  from  one  vessel  to  another. 
By  means  of  a  milk  pipette,  or  measure,  graduated  to  hold  17.6  cc, 
this  quantity  of  milk  is  transferred  to  a  special  form  of  bottle,  which 
has  a  capacity  of  a  little  more  than  one  ounce  and  a  long  neck  with 
graduations  or  per  cent  marks  from  0  to  10.  The  cubic  capacity  of 
the  neck,  from  0  to  10,  is  exactly  2  cc.  This  is  the  volume  of  1.8  grams 
of  melted  fat,  which  is  the  substance  to  be  measured  on  the  scale.  As 
the  bottle  is  so  graduated  that  1.8  grams  represents  10  per  cent,  it 
is  necessary  to  use  a  sample  weighing  ten  times  as  much,  or  18  grams, 
and  it  is  found  that  the  17.6  cc.  pipette  will  deliver  approximately 
this  weight  of  milk.  There  is  then  added  17.5  cc.  of  concentrated 
commercial  sulfuric  acid,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82  to  1.83. 
The  acid  and  milk  are  mixed  by  a  rotary  motion.  The  action  of 
the  acid  on  the  water  and  solids  of  the  milk  generates  considerable 
heat.  The  sample  is  promptly  placed  in  a  centrifugal  machine  and 
whirled  for  five  minutes.  Hot  water  is  then  added  to  bring  the  fat 
to  the  base  of  the  neck.  It  is  then  whirled  two  minutes,  and  more 
hot  water  is  carefully  added  until  the  fat  rises  in  the  neck  so  that  it  is 
opposite  the  graduations.  The  sample  is  then  whirled  one  minute, 
to  insure  collecting  as  much  fat  as  possible  in  the  neck.  While  the  fat 
is  still  warm,  its  percentage  is  ascertained  by  reading  the  marks  at  its 
upper  and  lower  levels  and  taking  the  difference  between  them. 

The  cost  of  a  small  complete  outfit  for  testing  milk  is  $6  to  SIO. 

Computing  total  sol'ds  of  milk. 

Babcock  and  Richmond  have  proposed  formulae  for  computing  the 
total  solids  of  milk.     One  of  the  best  is  :  — 

-  +  1.2  F  +  .14  =  total  solids. 
4 

L  represents  the  second  and  third  decimal  figures  of  the  specific  gravity, 
or  the  Quevenne  reading,  and  F  represents  the  percentage  of  fat.  This 
formula  is  used  largely,  and  for  practical  purposes  agrees  closely  enough 
with  results  of  gravimetric  analysis. 

Test  for  acid  in  milk  (Pearson). 

It  is  not  practicable  to  isolate  lactic  acid  from  milk  and  measure  it  as 
milk-fat  is  measured.     But  its  quantity  can  be  easily  determined  by 


448  MILK   AND   MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 

slowly  lukling  to  a  known  weight  of  milk  an  alkali  of  known  strength 
until  all  the  acid  is  neutralized.  The  neutralization  is  indicated  by 
phenolphthalein,  which  wa^  previously  added  to  the  milk  and  which 
causes  the  milk  to  turn  pink  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  show  an  alkaline 
reaction.  It  is  customary  (Mann's  test)  to  use  deci-normal  alkali 
solution,  1  cc.  of  which  will  neutralize  .009  gram  of  lactic  acid.  The 
equipment  includes,  besides  the  neutralizer  and  phenolphthalein,  a 
burette  for  measuring  the  neutralizer,  cup  and  glass  rod.  If  twenty 
grams  of  milk  is  used  and  it  requires  6  cc.  of  alkali  to  neutralize  the 
acid,  it  is  known  that  the  milk  contains  6X.009  or  .054  gram  of  lactic 
acid,  or  .27  per  cent.  Alkali  tablets  (Farrington's),  each  capable  of 
neutralizing  .034  gram  of  acid,  are  on  the  market.  They  may  be 
used  in  solution  instead  of  the  deci-normal  solution. 

Test  for  boiled  milk. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  determine  whether  milk  has  been  sub- 
jected to  176°  F.  or  higher  heat.  A  successful  test  has  been  devised 
by  Storch.  To  5  cc.  of  the  suspected  milk  add  a  few  drops  of  potassium 
iodid  and  a  similar  quantity  of  starch  solution,  also  a  few  drops  of 
hydrogen  peroxid.  If  the  milk  has  not  been  cooked,  an  enzyme  which 
is  present  will  decompose  the  hydrogen  peroxid,  setting  free  oxygen. 
This  combines  with  the  potassium  salt,  and  thus  iodine  is  in  turn  set 
free  and  with  the  starch  it  forms  a  purple  color.  If  the  milk  has  been 
heated  so  that  the  enzyme  is  killed,  no  color  will  result. 

Another  test  for  cooked  milk  is  given  by  Arnold,  as  follows  :  Tincture 
of  guaiac  is  added,  drop  by  drop,  to  a  little  milk  in  a  test-tube.  If  the 
milk  has  not  been  heated  to  176°  F.,  a  blue  zone  is  formed  between 
the  two  fluids.  If  it  has  been  heated,  there  is  no  reaction.  The  guaiac- 
wood  tincture  is  said  to  be  more  reliable  than  other  tinctures,  and  it 
should  not  be  used  when  fresh,  but  when  at  least  a  few  days  old  and  its 
potency  has  been  determined. 

The  lactotneter  test  for  specific  gravity  in  milk  (Pearson). 

As  the  specific  gravity  of  milk  is  markedly  changed  when  it  is  adul- 
terated by  the  addition  of  water  or  the  removal  of  cream,  the  lactometer 
is  an  important  instrument  to  indicate  such  adulteration.  It  is  of 
little  use  if  both  kinds  of  adulteration  have  been  practiced  on  the 
same  sample  of  milk,  as  the  increase  in  weight  due  to  removal  of 
cream  can  be  offset  by  the  addition  of  water,  which  is  lighter  than 


MILK    TESTS  449 

skimmed  milk.  In  connection  with  the  Babcock  test,  the  lactometer 
is  most  valuable,  and  several  formulae  are  in  use  by  which  the  solids 
not  fat  or  the  total  solids  of  milk  may  be  closely  computed  from  the 
specific  gravity  and  the  fat  test. 

The  lactometer  is  a  form  of  hydrometer  adapted  especially  for  use 
in  milk.  Several  styles  are  in  use,  the  Quevenne  being  the  most  con- 
venient because  its  readings  indicate  the  specific  gravity  without  the 
necessity  of  more  than  a  simple  mental  calculation.  The  readings 
on  the  stem  of  the  Quevenne  lactometer  are  from  15  to  40,  and  they 
represent  the  second  and  third  decimal  figures  of  the  specific  gravity, 
the  preceding  figures  always  being  1.0  ;  thus,  a  reading  of  29  represents 
a  specific  gravity  of  1.029.  This  instrument  should  be  used  in  milk 
at  a  temperature  of  60°  F.  If  the  temperature  varies  therefrom,  a  cor- 
rection of  the  reading  must  be  made,  .1  of  a  lactometer  degree  being 
added  to  the  reading  for  each  degree  of  temperature  of  the  milk  above 
60°  F.  or  if  the  temperature  is  below  60°  F,  .1  of  a  lactometer  degree 
is  subtracted  from  the  reading  for  each  degree  of  temperature  of 
the  milk  below  60°  F.  Thus,  if  the  lactometer  reads  31  at  a  tem- 
perature of  65°  F.,  the  corrected  reading  for  60°  F.  would  be  31.5,  and 
the  specific  gravity  of  this  milk  at  60°  F.  would  be  1.0315.  Special 
tables  for  making  corrections  for  different  temperatures  are  published 
in  books  treating  on  the  subject.  Bj^  the  rule  given,  it  is  not  advis- 
able to  attempt  to  correct  for  a  variation  of  more  than  10°  from  60°  F. 

Another  style  of  lactometer  in  common  use  is  know^n  as  the  New 
York  Board  of  Health  lactometer.  Its  graduations  are  from  10  to  120. 
The  instrument  stands  at  100  in  milk  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.029, 
and  it  would  stand  at  0,  if  graduated  to  that  point,  in  a  fluid  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.  Thus,  100°  in  the  B  of  H  lactometer  equals  29° 
on  the  Quevenne  lactometer,  and  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  compute  the 
equivalent  reading  of  one  lactometer  for  any  given  reading  on  the  other 
by  the  formula  :  — 

Q  =  .29BofH,  orBof  H  =  -^. 

.29 

Test  for  boric  acid  or  borax  used  as  preservatives  (Van  Slyke). 

Add  lime-water  to  25  cc.  of  milk  until  the  mixture  is  alkaline  to  phe- 
nalphthalein  ;   evaporate  to  drj'ness  and  burn  to  an  ash  in  a  small  por- 
celain or  platinum  dish.     Add  a  few  drops  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid 
2a 


450  MILK  AND    MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 

to  the  ash,  care  being  taken  not  to  use  too  much  acid,  then  add  a  few 
drops  of  water,  and  place  a  strip  of  turmeric  paper  in  this  water  solution. 
Dry  the  paper,  and  if  either  borax  or  boric  acid  is  present,  a  cherry- 
red  color  will  api)ear.  This  test  is  confirmed  by  moistening  the  red- 
dened paper  with  a  drop  of  an  alkali  solution,  w^hen  the  paper  will  turn 
to  a  dark  olive  color,  if  borax  or  boric  acid  is  present. 

Test  for  formaldehyde  in  milk. 

This  test  can  be  performed  in  connection  with  the  Babcock  test. 
Measure  into  the  Babcock  test  bottle  17.6  cc.  of  milk.  Add  five 
or  six  drops  of  ferric  chloride  solution  and  shake  thoroughly.  Add 
17.5  cc.  of  sulfuric  acid,  but  do  not  mix  the  acid  and  milk.  If 
formaldehyde  is  present,  a  lavender-colored  ring  will  appear  at 
the  point  of  contact  of  the  acid  and  milk.  If  the  contents  of  the 
bottle  are  mixed  slowly,  the  entire  mass  of  curd  will  turn  a  lavender 
color.     This  test  will  not  work  if  the  sample  is  too  old. 

Standardizing  milk  (Pearson). 

Standardized  milk  is  that  which  has  been  changed  in  its  composition 
to  cause  it  to  contain  a  required  amount  of  fat.  This  is  usually  ac- 
complished by  adding  cream  or  skimmed  milk.  A  convenient  rule  for 
determining  the  amount  of  ingredients  to  make  a  mixture  testing  a  cer- 
tain per  cent  of  fat,  is  as  follows,  supposing  cream  and  milk  are  to  be 
used  (in  most  States  it  is  unlawful  to  add  skimmed  milk) :  — 

Draw  a  rectangle,  placing  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  cream  at  the  upper 
left-hand  corner,  and  the  per  cent  of  fat  of  the  milk  at  the  lower  left- 
hand  corner.  Place  the  desired  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  center.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  numbers  in  the  center  and  at  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  should  be  written  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  and  the  dif- 
ference between  the  numbers  in  the  center  and  at  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  should  be  written  at  the  lower  right-hand  corner.  These  right- 
hand  numbers  represent  the  proportions  of  the  substances  represented 
at  the  corresponding  left-hand  corners,  which  must  be  mixed  to  produce 
a  milk  testing  the  desired  amount  of  fat. 

Thus  :  To  raise  the  fat  test  of  a  3.8  per  cent  milk  to  4  per  cent  by  the 
use  of  cream  testing  25  per  cent,  by  completing  the  figure  as  explained, 
it  will  be  seen  that  for  every  21  pounds  of  3.8  per  cent  milk  there 
should  be  used  .2  of  1  pound  of  25  per  cent  cream. 


MILK   TESTS  451 

BvUer  moisture-test  (Cornell  test). 

The  apparatus  used  in  the  Cornell  moisture-test  is  an  alcohol  lamp, 
stand,  asbestos  sheet,  hot-pan  lifter,  aluminum  cup  for  holding  the 
sample,  and  a  special  moisture  scale.  The  scale  is  especially  adapted 
for  moisture  work,  but  may  be  used  as  a  cream  scale  in  operating  the 
Babcock  test. 

The  scale  has  a  tare  weight  for  balancing  the  cup  and  a  large  and 
small  weight  for  weighing  the  sample  and  obtaining  the  percentage  of 
moisture.  The  beam  has  two  rows  of  figures,  which  give  readings 
with  the  larger  weight.  The  lower  row  gives  readings  in  grams  and 
the  upper  row  in  percentages.  The  smaller  weight  gives  readings  in 
grams  when  the  weight  is  moved  from  1  forward.  Each  notch  repre- 
sents .02  gram,  the  total  value  of  the  small  scale  being  .2  gram.  When 
the  small  weight  is  moved  from  0  backward,  each  notch  represents  a 
loss  of  .1  per  cent  of  moisture  when  20.2  grams  of  butter  are  used.  The 
small  weight  is  intended  to  be  used  only  in  moisture  work.  In  using 
the  scale  for  Babcock  work,  the  small  weight  is  not  used,  but  is  left  at 
rest  on  the  figure  1.  Then  when  the  scales  are  balanced,  the  small 
weight  is  negligible.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  any  draft  of  air, 
as  from  an  open  window,  strike  the  scales  when  in  use,  as  they  are  so 
sensitive  that  a  very  slight  current  of  air  would  throw  them  out 
of  balance.  The  scales  will  give  readings  in  percentages  only  when 
20.2  grams  of  butter  have  been  weighed,  or,  in  other  words,  when 
the  large  weight  is  on  20  (of  the  gram  scale)  and  the  small  weight 
is  on  zero. 

The  cup  used  is  of  cast  aluminum,  and  is  durable  and  perfectly  smooth. 
The  absence  of  creases  or  crevices  allows  it  to  be  cleaned  and  dried 
thoroughly. 

Taking  the  sample.  —  It  is  necessary  that  a  representative  sample  be 
taken  for  a  moisture-test.  If  the  butter  is  sold  in  tubs,  the  sample 
should  be  taken  from  the  tub  with  a  butter-trier,  after  the  butter  has 
been  packed.  It  is  best  to  take  three  drawings  —  one  from  near  the 
edge,  one  from  the  middle,  and  one  half-way  between  the  edge  and 
the  middle.  Some  butter-makers  test  the  butter  as  soon  as  it  is 
worked.  This  is  a  mistake,  since  considerable  moisture  is  lost  in 
the  process  of  printing  and  Dacking. 


452  MILK  AND   MILK   PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 

Operation  of  the  test.  —  After  the  cup  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried, 
it  is  placed  on  the  scales  and  balanced  by  means  of  the  tare  weight  on 
the  round  bar  attached  to  the  beam  of  the  scales.  The  large  weight 
should  rest  on  the  zero  mark  (of  the  gram  scale)  and  the  small  weight 
on  1  while  the  cup  is  being  balanced.  The  cup  should  not  be  balanced 
until  it  is  about  the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the  room.  After  the 
cup  is  balanced,  the  larger  weight  is  moved  to  the  20  mark  (of  the  gram 
scale)  and  the  small  weight  to  the  zero  mark.  Butter  from  the  prepared 
sample  is  then  added  to  the  cup  until  the  scales  are  accurately  balanced. 
The  alcohol  lamp  is  then  placed  under  the  iron  stand  and  the  asbestos 
sheet  placed  on  the  stand.  The  lamp  is  lighted  and  the  cup  placed  on 
the  asbestos  sheet.  It  is  well  to  light  the  lamp  at  least  two  or  three 
minutes  before  placing  the  cup  on  the  asbestos  in  order  to  heat 
the  asbestos  and  save  time.  The  heat  of  the  flame  may  be  in- 
creased or  diminished  by  raising  or  lowering  the  wick.  The  cup 
should  always  be  handled  with  the  hot  pan  lifter,  as  by  so  doing 
it  will  be  kept  clean  and  errors  in  weight  due  to  dirt  on  the  cup 
will  be  avoided. 

While  the  sample  is  heating  it  should  be  shaken  from  time  to  time, 
aj3  this  breaks  up  the  blanket  of  casein  on  the  surface  and  hastens  the 
escape  of  moisture.  As  soon  as  the  casein  has  lost  its  snow-white  color, 
the  cup  should  be  removed  from  the  flame.  When  the  moisture  has  all 
been  driven  from  the  sample,  a  slightly  pungent  odor  may  be  noticed. 
This  may  also  be  used  as  a  guide  to  tell  when  the  sample  has  been  heated 
enough.  The  foam  begins  to  subside  at  this  point.  Often  one  or 
two  small  pieces  of  casein  are  slow  to  give  up  their  moisture.  This  is 
indicated  by  the  snow-white  color  of  the  pieces.  Evaporation  can  be 
hastened  by  shaking  the  sample  with  a  rotary  motion  and  thoroughly 
mixing  these  pieces  with  the  hot  liquid.  If  this  is  not  done,  one  might 
have  to  heat  the  sample  so  long  that  some  of  the  fat  which  had  already 
given  up  its  moisture  would  volatilize. 

After  all  the  moisture  is  driven  off,  the  sample  is  allowed  to  cool  to 
room  temperature.  While  cooling,  the  cup  should  be  covered  with 
something  (a  sheet  of  paper  will  do)  to  prevent  the  sample  taking  up 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  After  cooling,  the  cup  is  placed  on 
the  scales.  The  sample  is  lighter  than  before  heating,  because  it  has 
lost  its  moisture.  The  bar  of  the  scales  will  therefore  remain  down. 
The  weights  are  then  reversed  until  the  scales  just  balance. 


MILK   TESTS  453 

Each  notch  that  the  larger  weight  is  reversed  has  a  value  of  1  per 
cent  (reading  on  the  upper  scale),  and  each  notch  that  the  smaller 
weight  is  reversed  has  a  value  of  .1  per  cent.  If,  for  example,  after 
heating,  the  scales  just  balance  when  the  larger  weight  rests  on  15 
(upper  scale)  and  the  smaller  weight  rests  on  .2,  it  would  mean  that  the 
sample  contained  15.2  per  cent  moisture. 

Test  Jor  salt  in  butter  (Ross). 

Weigh  out  accurately,  from  a  well-mixed  sample,  10  grams  of  butter. 
Add  to  the  10  grams  of  butter  100  cc.  of  hot  water,  and  thoroughly  mix 
the  butter  with  the  water.  Then  cool  to  harden  the  fat,  and  pour  off  into 
a  clean  dish  the  100  cc.  of  water.  Repeat  this  operation  until  300  cc. 
of  water  has  been  used.  Thoroughly  mix  the  300  cc.  of  water,  and  meas- 
ure out  17.5  cc.  into  a  glass  beaker  or  white  cup,  and  add  five  or  six 
drops  of  potassium  chromate.  This  will  turn  the  solution  a  lemon- 
yellow  color.     Run  in  from  a  burette  an  —  normal  solution  of  silver 

10 

nitrate.  Thoroughly  mix  the  solution  as  the  silver  nitrate  is  added. 
When  the  solution  turns  to  an  orange-yellow  color,  enough  silver  ni- 
trate has  been  added  to  neutralize  all  of  the  salt.  The  number  of  cc. 
of  silver  nitrate  solution  added  equals  the  per  cent  of  salt  in  the  butter. 
For  example,  if  it  requires  2  cc.  of  silver  nitrate,  there  is  2  per  cent 
of  salt  in  the  butter.  If  more  or  less  than  10  grams  of  butter  are 
used  and  more  or  less  than  17.5  cc.  of  the  solution  are  used  for  the 
test,  the  burette  will  not  give  readings  directly  in  terms  of  per  cent. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  run  in  too  much  silver  nitrate.  If  too 
much  silver  nitrate  is  used,  the  color  will  be  a  dull  brick-red,  and  incor- 
rect results  will  be  obtained.     An  —  normal  solution  of  silver  nitrate, 

10 

which  is  accurate  enough  for  the  purpose,  may  be  made  by  dissolv- 
ing 17.5  grams  of  silver  nitrate  in  200  cc.  of  water  and  then  making 
the  solution  to  1000  cc.  or  1  liter. 

Test  for  salt  in  cheese  (Ross). 

Burn  to  a  gray  ash  in  a  porcelain  dish  5  grams  of  the  cheese. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  contents  in  the  center  of  the  dish. 
Xf  this  is  done,  it  will  make  it  easier  to  reduce  the  cheese  to  an  ash. 


454  MILK  AND    MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 

Cool  and  dissolve  the  ash  in  20  cc.  of  pure,  clean  water.  Transfer 
the  20  cc.  of  the  ash  solution  to  a  glass  beaker  or  a  white  cup.  Add 
five  or  six  drops  of  a  water  solution  of  potassium  chromate.    This  will 

turn  the  solution  a  lemon-yellow  color.     Run  in  from  a  burette  an  — 

10 
normal  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  Thoroughly  mi.x  the  solution  as 
the  silver  nitrate  is  added.  When  the  color  of  the  solution  turns  to 
an  orange-yellow,  enough  silver  nitrate  has  been  added  to  neutralize 
all  the  salt.  Then  multiply  the  number  of  cc.  of  silver  nitrate  used  by 
.00585.  Divide  this  result  by  5,  the  number  of  grams  of  cheese 
taken,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  100.  This  is  the  per  cent  of  salt 
in  the  cheese. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  run  in  too  much  silver  nitrate.  If  too 
much  silver  nitrate  is  used,  the  color  will  be  a  dull  brick-red,  and  in- 
correct results  will  be  obtained.     An   —   normal   solution  of   silver 

10 

nitrate,  which  is  accurate  enough  for  the  purpose,  may  be  made  by 
dissolving  \7\  grams  of  silver  nitrate  in  200  cc.  of  water  and  then 
making  the  solution  up  to  1000  cc.  or  one  liter. 

Over-run  in  butter-making  (Pa.  Sta.  and  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric). 

Over-run  in  butter  is  the  amount  of  water,  casein,  and  salt  incor- 
porated in  the  butter-fat  in  making  butter.  Creamery  over-run,  how- 
ever, should  always  be  computed  from  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter- 
fat  received  and  the  pounds  of  butter  sold. 

The  formula  for  calculating  over-run  in  percentage  is  as  follows  : 

Pounds  of  butter  made  —  pounds  of  butter-fat  received  ^  .  ^^ 
pounds  of  butter-fat  received 

=  per  cent  over-run. 

In  a  whole-milk  creamery  it  is  possible  to  obtain  from  18  to  20 
per  cent  over-run  and  have  only  14  to  14^  per  cent  moisture  in  the 
butter,  while  in  a  creamery  where  hand  separator  cream  is  received, 
20  to  22  per  cent  over-run  can  be  obtained.  This  is  shown  by  the 
following  two  examples  :  — 


MILK   TESTS  455 

Example  : 

10,000  pounds  4  per  cent  milk  contains  400  pounds  butter-fat. 

10,000  pounds  4  per  cent  milk  gives  1600  pounds  24+  per  cent  cream 
and  8400  pounds  skim  milk. 

1,600  pounds  of  cream  testing  24+  per  cent  contains  391.6  pounds 
butter-fat. 

8400  pounds  skim  milk,  loss  (maximum)  .1  per  cent,  is  8.4  pounds 
butter-fat. 

1600  pounds  cream  less  391.6  pounds  butter-fat,  leaves  1208.4 
pounds  buttermilk. 

1208.4  pounds  buttermilk  at  .2  per  cent  loss  is  2.4  pounds  butter-fat, 
the  loss  in  churning. 

8.4  pounds  butter-fat,  loss  in  skim  milk,  and  2.4  pounds  butter- 
fat,  loss  in  buttermilk,  gives  10.8  pounds  butter-fat  loss  in  both. 

10.8  pounds  butter-fat  from  400  pounds  butter-fat  leaves  389.2 
pounds  of  butter-fat  to  be  churned  into  butter. 

If  389.2  pounds  butter-fat  is  churned  into  butter  containing  14  per 
cent  water  and  4  per  cent  salt  and  casein,  it  will  make  474.6  pounds  of 
butter. 

474.6  pounds  less  400  pounds  gives  74.6  pounds  of  butter,  which  is 
the  over-run. 

74.6  pounds  of  butter  times  100  makes  7460,  divided  by  400  gives  18.6 
per  cent  over-run. 

Spoon-test  for  oleomargarin  and  renovated  butter. 

Place  in  a  tablespoon  a  piece  of  the  sample,  about  the  size  of  a 
hickory-nijt.  Hold  the  spoon  over  the  flame  until  the  sample  is 
melted,  and  stir  frequently  while  melting.  Then  lower  the  spoon 
into  the  flame.  Oleo  and  renovated  butter  will  boil  with  a  loud 
crackling  noise,  and  there  will  be  almost  no  foam  on  the  surface  of 
the  sample.  Genuine  butter  will  boil  quietly  and  the  surface  will  be 
covered  with  foam. 

The  test  for  moisture  in  cheese  (Ross). 

Obtain  a  representative  sample  of  cheese  as  directed  in  the  test  for  fat 
in  cheese.  Then  in  a  flat-bottom  dish  at  least  three  inches  in  diameter 
weigh  out  3  grams  of  cheese.     If  no  glass  dish  is  at  hand,  a  tea  saucer 


456  MILK  AND    MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY   FARMS 

will  answer  the  purpose.  Heat  the  sample  in  a  water  oven  at  the  tem- 
jierature  of  l^oiliuf];  water  for  eight  hours.  Cool  the  dish,  weigh  and 
divide  tiie  loss  in  weight  by  the  three  grams  of  clieese  taken.  Multiply 
the  quotient  by  100.  This  quotient  is  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  the 
cheese.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  cheese  in  the  dish  in  as  thin  a 
layer  as  possible.  This  will  make  it  easier  for  the  moisture  of  the 
clieese  to  escape. 

The  Babcock  lest  for  fat  in  cheese  (Ross). 

Secure  a  representative  sample  of  the  cheese.  This  is  best  done  by 
means  of  a  cheese  trier,  taking  a  plug  from  the  center  of  the  cheese  one- 
half  way  between  the  center  and  the  outside  of  the  cheese  and  one 
very  near  the  outside  of  the  cheese.  Using  a  knife,  mince  these  three 
plugs  as  fine  as  possible  and  mix  them  thoroughly.  After  the  sample 
is  minced  very  fine  and  thoroughly  mixed,  weigh  out  on  a  set  of  cream 
balances  in  a  cream  bottle  4  grams  of  the  cheese.  Add  5  cc.  of 
warm  water  and  shake  thoroughly  for  one  or  two  minutes.  Then 
make  the  sample  up  to  approximately  18  grams  by  the  addition  of 
water,  and  add  17.5  cc.  sulfuric  acid.  After  the  acid  is  added,  shake 
the  sample  thoroughly  for  from  two  to  three  minutes.  The  purpose 
of  this  shaking  is  to  dissolve  all  of  the  cheese  curd.  If  this  is  not  done, 
the  fat  column  will  be  cloudy.  Then  place  the  bottles  in  the  machine 
and  proceed  with  the  test  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Test  for  determining  casein  in  milk  (Van  Slyke  and  Bosworth). 

A  given  amount  of  milk,  diluted  with  water,  is  made  neutral  to  phe- 
nolphthalein  solution  by  addition  of  a  solution  of  sodium  hydroxid. 
The  casein  is  then  completely  precipitated  by  addition  of  standardized 
acetic  acid  ;  the  volume  of  the  mixture  is  made  up  to  200  cc.  by  ad- 
dition of  water,  thoroughly  shaken,  and  then  filtered.  Into  100  cc.  of 
the  filtrate  a  standardized  solution  of  sodium  hj-droxid  is  run  until 
neutral  to  phenolphthalein.  The  solutions  are  so  standardized  that  1  cc. 
is  equivalent  to  1  per  cent  of  casein  when  a  definite  amount  of  milk 
is  used.  The  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  standard  acid  used,  divided 
by  2,  less  the  amount  of  standard  alkali  used  in  the  last  titration, 
gives  the  percentage  of  casein  in  the  milk  examined.  When  one  uses 
17.5  cc.  (18  grams)  of  milk,  the  amount  used  in  the  Babcock  milk- 


MILK    TESTS  457 

fat  test,  the  standard  acid  and  alkali  solutions  are  made  by  dilut- 
ing 795  cc.  of  tenth-normal  solutions  to  one  liter.  By  using  22  cc. 
of  milk,  tenth-normal  solutions  can  be  used  directly  ;  or  by  using 
20  cc.  of  milk  and  tenth-normal  solutions,  adjustment  is  made  by 
multiplying  the  final  result  by  1.0964. 

Wisconsin  curd-test. 

This  curd-test  may  be  of  use  to  creamerymen  in  detecting  milk 
which  is  giving  trouble  on  account  of  odors,  taints,  gas,  and  so  forth. 
Sometimes  the  milk  from  a  certain  cow  contaminates  the  milk  of  the 
entire  herd.     In  such  a  case,  the  dairyman  may  find  this  test  useful. 

Sterilize  as  near  as  possible  by  immersing  in  boiling  water  for  30 
minutes  as  many  pint  glass  fruit-jars  as  there  are  samples  to  be  tested. 
Cool  the  jars  at  the  same  time,  keeping  them  covered  to  prevent 
contamination.  Then  fill  the  jars  two-thirds  full  of  the  milk  to  be 
examined.  Set  the  jars  in  a  tank  of  water,  the  temperature  of  which 
is  about  100°  F.,  and  allow  the  milk  to  come  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  tank.  The  temperature  of  the 
milk  may  be  taken  with  a  thermometer  that  has  been  held  for  at 
least  one  minute  in  boiling  water;  the  thermometer  should  be  thus 
treated  after  taking  the  temperature  of  each  sample  to  prevent  car- 
rying contamination  from  one  sample  to  another. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  milk  has  reached  about  95°  F.  to  98° 
F.,  add  to  each  jar  of  milk  about  10  drops  of  rennet  and  shake  thor- 
oughly. The  rennet  will  coagulate  the  milk  in  about  20  minutes,  and 
the  whey  should  then  be  poured  off.  The  whey  will  separate  more 
readily  from  the  curd  if  the  latter  is  broken  up  with  a  knife  or  other 
instrument  which  has  been  dipped  for  at  least  one  minute  in  boiling 
water.  As  much  of  the  whey  as  possible  should  be  drawn  off.  The 
jars  should  then  be  set  in  the  tank  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
about  100°  F.  for  6  to  8  hours.  Examination  of  odor  and  condition 
of  the  curd  may  be  made  every  30  minutes.  The  condition  of  the 
curd  may  best  be  told  by  cutting  it  with  a  sharp  knife  and  examin- 
ing the  freshly  cut  surface  for  gas  pockets. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  entire  process  to  have  every  - 
thing  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  milk  as  near  sterile  as  pos- 
sible. 


458  MILK  AND  MILK   PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 

Propagation  of  Starter  for  Butter-making  and  Cheese-making 

(Guthrie) 

1.  Take  three  one-quart  milk  bottles  or  fruit  jars. 

2.  Use  fresh,  clean  milk  (either  whole  milk  or  skimmed  milk)  which 
must  have  a  nice  flavor. 

3.  Fill  the  containers  one-half  to  two-thirds  full  of  milk. 

4.  Protect  the  containers  with  regular  covers  (caps  or  tops). 

5.  Pasteurize  by  heating  to  180°-200°  F.  for  thirty  minutes  or  longer, 
and  then  cool  to  ripening  temperature  of  60°-75°  F. 

6.  After  pasteurization  the  milk  is  ready  for  inoculation.  Inoculate 
in  a  quiet  place  where  the  wind  cannot  blow  dirt  and  bacteria  into 
this  clean  seed  bed. 

7.  Incubate  at  about  60°-75°  F.  The  first  inoculation  from  the 
commercial  culture  should  be  incubated  at  about  70°-  85°  F. 

8.  The  starter  is  ripe  when  a  curd  forms.  This  curd  should  be  soft 
and  like  custard  in  appearance. 

9.  After  the  starter  is  ripe,  hold  it  at  50°  F.  or  a  few  degrees  lower 
until  time  to  use.  For  best  results  a  starter  should  not  be  held  longer 
than  a  few  hours. 

10.  Upon  examination  the  curd  should  be  smooth  and  compact, 
without  gas  pockets.     Gas  shows  the  presence  of  undesirable  bacteria. 

Farm  Butter-making  (Tnieman,  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.) 

The  farmer  will  not  ask,  is  it  more  scientific  to  make  butter  than  to 
sell  milk,  or  is  it  less  trouble,  or  does  it  take  less  time  and  work,  but, 
does  it  pay  ?  That  question  can  best  be  answered  by  a  comparison  of 
the  amount  received  for  1000  pounds  of  milk  by  each  method. 

One  thousand  pounds  of  milk  equals  465  quarts.  At  3^  cents  per 
quart,  its  value  is  SI 6.27.  The  value  of  the  same  amount  of  milk  made 
into  butter  will  depend  upon  the  richness  of  the  milk.  If  it  will  test 
4  per  cent  of  fat,  then  the  1000  pounds  will  contain  40  pounds  of  fat. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  this  will  make  about  44.5  pounds  of  butter. 
This  at  35  cents  per  pound  is  worth  $15.57.  Add  to  this  the  value  of 
800  pounds  of  skim  milk  and  150  pounds  of  buttermilk,  a  total  of  950 
pounds  at  25  cents  per  hundredweight,  equal  to  $2.37,  a  total  of  $17.94 
for  the  1000  pounds  of  milk  when  made  into  butter.  This  gives  a 
balance  of  $1.67,  in  favor  of  making  butter,  to  say  nothing  of  the  value 


FARM  BUTTER-MAKING  459 

of  the  fertilizer  material  in  the  skim  milk  and  the  profit  in  having 
healthy,  rapid-growing  calves. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  side  on  which  the  profit  will  appear 
will  depend  wholly  on  the  prices  received  for  milk  and  butter.  If  the 
milk  is  sold  at  the  farm  at  four  cents  per  quart  and  the  butter  must  be 
sold  at  30  cents  per  pound,  then  the  margin  of  profit  would  amount 
to  $2.88  per  1000  pounds  of  milk,  in  favor  of  selling  by  the  quart, 
provided  the  milk  tests  4  per  cent  as  in  the  first  case. 

If,  however,  the  herd  in  question  consisted  of  well-bred  Jerseys, 
giving  milk  testing  5  per  cent  on  the  average,  the  result  would  be  some- 
what different : 

1000  lb.  milk     465  quarts 

465  quarts  ©4^- $18.60 

1000  lb.  milk  testing  5% 50  lb.  fat 

50  lb.  fat   57  lbs.  butter 

57  lb.  butter  @  30j? $17.10 

950  lb.  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  @  25^-  per  ewt 2.37 

Total    $19.47 

This  leaves  a  balance  of  87  cents  per  1000  pounds  of  milk,  in  favor  of 
making  butter. 

Bitter  milk  and  cream. 

Milk  may  have  an  acrid,  bitter  taste,  caused  by  the  cows  eating 
ragweed,  an  herb  which  is  common  in  pastures  late  in  the  summer. 
Flavors  produced  by  what  the  cows  eat  are  most  noticeable  when  the 
milk  is  first  drawn  from  the  udder,  while  flavors  produced  by  the  growth 
of  bacteria  get  worse  as  the  milk  gets  older.  The  only  remedy  for  rag- 
weed flavor  is  to  remove  the  cows  from  the  pasture  containing  the  weed. 

Bitter  milk  is  sometimes  given  by  cows  that  are  advanced  in  their 
period  of  lactation  and  giving  a  small  quantity  of  milk.  Such  cows 
should  be  dried  up  at  once. 

Certain  bacteria  that  develop  at  low  temperatures  may  produce 
bitter  flavors  in  the  ripening  cream.  In  this  case  the  cream  is  all  right 
when  fresh  but  gradually  develops  the  bitter  flavor.  This  can  be 
stopped  by  using  plenty  of  steam  or  boiling  water  to  sterilize  thor- 
oughly all  utensils,  and  by  using  a  good  active  starter  to  hasten  the 
development  of  lactic  acid.  The  cream  should  not  be  allowed  to  get 
old  and  the  temperature  should  be  kept  up  to  70°  F.  or  75°  F.  during 
ripening. 


460  MILK   AND   MILK  PRODUCTS',    DAIRY  FARMS 

Why  butter  will  not  "  come." 

One  of  the  most  common  complaints  is  that  the  butter  will  not  come. 
This  j^cnerally  hapjKMis  in  the  fall  in  herds  where  the  cows  freshen  in  the 
spring  or  early  winter.  When  fall  comes,  these  cows  have  been  milk- 
ing a  long  time  and  are  not  giving  much  milk.  The  character  of  the 
milk  changes  as  the  lactation  period  advances.  The  per  cent  of  fat 
and  of  solids-not-fat,  increases.  This  makes  the  cream  more  viscous, 
and  more  inclined  to  ''whip,"  or  to  froth  ui)  and  fill  the  churn.  When 
this  happens,  and  the  churn  is  full  of  frothy  cream,  about  the  only 
thing  to  do  is  to  add  liot  water  to  warm  up  the  fat  and  to  destroy  the 
viscosity  of  the  cream.  Such  treatment  will  not  make  the  best  of  but- 
ter, but  is  better  than  cliurning  all  day  and  finally  becoming  so  dis- 
couraged that  the  whole  churning  is  thrown  out. 

This  trouble  may  be  avoided  by  using  more  starter,  ripening  at  a 
higher  temperature,  say  75°  F.  to  80°  F.,  and  churning  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature, say  65°  F.  This  again  will  not  make  the  best  of  butter,  but 
will  enable  one  to  handle  successfully  that  kind  of  cream. 

Sometimes  the  butter  will  not  come  because  the  cream  is  too  thin. 
The  fat  globules  are  not  crowded  closely  enough  together  in  the  milk 
serum  to  cause  them  to  stick  together  when  the  cream  is  agitated. 
Cream  should  contain  over  20  per  cent  of  fat  in  order  to  make  it  churn 
easily,  and  30  per  cent  is  better. 

Sweet  cream  does  not  churn  as  easily  as  sour  cream.  Souring  tends 
to  reduce  viscosity  and  prevent  whipping. 

Frequently  the  butter  will  not  come  because  the  cream  is  too  cold. 
The  thermometer  should  be  used,  and  if  below  60°  F.  warm  up  by  add- 
ing hot  water,  or  by  taking  out  some  of  the  cream  and  warming  it  antl 
then  returning  it  to  the  main  lot  in  the  churn.  Unless  the  cream  is 
already  too  thin,  hot  water,  added  carefully,  will  generally  be  found 
satisfactory.  Cream  may  become  too  cold  from  churning  in  a  cold 
room,  especially  if  a  metal  or  crockery  churn  is  used. 

Too  thick  cream  will  sometimes  stick  to  the  sides  of  the  churn  and  the 
butter  will  not  come  from  lack  of  concussion.  Water  or  skim  milk  of  the 
proper  temperature  may  be  added  to  reduce  the  thickness  of  the  cream. 

If  the  churn  is  too  full,  the  proper  amount  of  concussion  is  not  pro- 
duced and  the  butter  fails  to  come.  Take  out  part  of  the  cream  and 
make  two  churnings. 


FARM  BUTTER-MAKING  461 

Old  cream  makes  poor-flavored  butler. 

Probably  the  most  common  cause  of  poor-flavored  butter  is  cream  that 
has  grown  stale  before  being  churned.  Fine,  fresh-tasting  butter,  with 
dehcate  flavors  and  aroma,  cannot  be  made  from  old  cream.  Three 
days  should  be  the  limit  of  age,  if  the  best  quality  is  to  be  produced. 

White  specks  in  the  butter. 

These  are  caused  by  dried  cream,  and  by  lumps  of  coagulated  casein. 
The  cream  should  be  stirred  frequently  while  ripening  and  always 
strained  through  a  fine-mesh  wire  strainer,  when  put  in  the  churn. 

Mottled  butter. 

"Mottles"  are  caused  by  an  uneven  distribution  of  the  salt.  The 
action  of  the  salt  on  the  casein  causes  light  streaks  and  spots  to  show 
all  through  the  butter.  The  remedy  is  to  wash  weU  until  the  water  is 
clear,  and  to  work  a  little  longer  until  the  salt  is  evenly  mixed  with  the 
butter.  The  proper  point  at  which  to  stop  working  can  be  learned  only 
by  experience. 

Effect  of  feed  on  butter-fat. 

We  have  not  much  definite  knowledge  about  the  effect  of  feeds  upon 
texture  and  flavor  of  butter.  Strong-flavored  feeds,  such  as  turnips, 
garlic,  cabbage,  silage,  etc.,  may  be  fed  immediately  after  milking  and 
they  will  then  have  little  or  no  effect  upon  the  flavor  of  the  milk. 

Gluten  feed,  oil  meal  and  soy  beans  are  known  to  produce  softer 
butter  than  corn  meal  and  cotton-seed-meal,  the  latter  being  especially 
noted  for  the  production  of  a  hard,  tallowy  fat. 

Butter  from  Whey 

The  quantity  of  butter  that  can  be  made  from  the  whey  from  100 
pounds  of  milk  is  somewhat  variable,  depending  on  the  amount  of  fat 
that  is  lost  in  the  whey  during  the  process  of  cheese-making.  This 
loss  depends  on  a  great  many  conditions,  but  on  the  average  about 
5  ounces  of  butter  can  be  made  from  the  whey  from  100  pounds  of 
milk. 


462 


MILK   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 


Milk,  Butter,  and  Dairy-farm  Scores 

Score-card  for  market  milk  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric,  Dairy  Division) 

NUMERICAL    SCORE 


Flavor,  40 


Composition,  25 


Bacteria,  20 


Acidity,  5 


Appearance  of 
package  and 
contents,  10 


Perfect 
score,  100 


Judge's 
score. 


DESCRIPTIVE    SCORE 


Flavor 


Excellent 
Good    . 
Fair      . 
Bad       . 
Flat      . 
Bitter  . 
Weedy 
Garlic  . 
Silage   . 
Manure 
Smothered 
Other  Taints 


Composition 


Perfect 

Fat,  —  per  cent 

Solids  not  fat,  — 
per  cent 


Bacteria 


Perfect 

Total. 

Liquefiers 


Acidity 


Perfect 
—  per  cent 


Package  and 
contents 


Perfect 

Foreign  matter 
Metal  parts 
Unattractive 


Remarks : 
Date :  - 


Flavor. 


Directions  for  scoring 


If  rich,  sweet,  clean,  and  pleasant  flavor  and  odor,  score  perfect  (40). 
Deduct  for  objectionable  flavors  and  odors  according  to  conditions 
found. 

Composition. 

If  3.25  per  cent  fat  or  above  and  8.5  per  cent  solids  not  fat  or  above, 
score  perfect  (25).  Deduct  one  point  for  each  one-fourth  per  cent  fat 
below  3.25,  and  one  point  for  each  one-fourth  per  cent  solids  not  fat 
below  8.5. 


SCORE-CARDS  463 


Bacteria. 


Less  than  10,000  per  cubic  centimeter (perfect)  .  20 

Over  10,000  and  less  than  25,000  per  cubic  centimeter 19 

Over  25,000  and  less  than  50,000  per  cubic  centimeter 18 

Over  50,000  and  less  than  75,000  per  cubic  centimeter 17 

Over  75,000  and  less  than  100,000  per  cubic  centimeter 16 

Deduct  1  point  for  each  25,000  above  100,000. 

^\^len  an  unusually  large  number  of  liquef3'ing  bacteria  are  present, 
further  deduction  should  be  made  according  to  conditions  found. 

Acid. 

If  0.2  per  cent  or  below,  score  perfect  (5).  Deduct  one  point  for 
each  0.01  per  cent  above  0.2  per  cent.  (If  Mann's  test  is  used,  dis- 
continue adding  indicator  on  first  appearance  of  a  pink  color.) 

Appearance  of  package  and  contents. 

If  package  is  clean,  free  from  metal  parts,  and  no  foreign  matter 
can  be  detected  in  the  contents,  score  perfect  (10).  Make  deduc- 
tions according  to  conditions  found. 

Butter  score-card  (Cornell) 

Flavor 45  

Body 25  

Color 15  

Salt 10  

Package 5  

Total 100  

Name  of  Judge 

Flavor 
Desirable  Due  to  farm  conditions 

Clean,  creamery  —  pleasant  bouquet,       Dirty     {name  cause  if  possible) 
aroma.  Pails,  cans,  barn,  milkhouse,  etc. 

Weedy  (name  weed  if  possible) 
Undesirable  Barny 

_       ^  ,.  .  Cowy 

Due  to  creamery  conditions  Feedy  (name  feed  if  possible) 

Dirty         (name  cause  if  possible)  ^^^^^e,  hay,  grain 

Churn  vat.   refrigerator,    separator,       ^^^  ^^  ^.^^^^  creamery  or  farm  con- 
Woody'  Rancid  ditions  or  both 
Poor  starter               Too  high  ripening       Flat  Cheesy 
Oily                                 temperature              Smothered                        Bitter 

Fishy  Metallic 

Turpentiny  Dirty  strainer 


464 


MILK   AND   MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 


Body 

Salt 

Desirable 

Desirable 

Waxy,  medium  grain  (in  length) 

Well   dissolved,   medium    in    amount 

Undesirable 

Undesirable 

Weak 

Too  much  water 

Tallowy 
Milky  brine 

Not  enough  water 
Water  not  well  incor- 

Too high 
Too  light 

Gritty 

Not  well  distributed 

Greasy 

porated 

Short  grain 

Leaky 
Color 

Package 

Desirable 

Desirable 

Uniform,    medium     shade    (June     or 

Neat 

clean,  attractive 

straw) 

Undesirable 

Undesirable 

Not  suited  to  market        Not  finished 

Mottled 

Too  high 

Poorly  packed                     Moldy 

Streaked 

Too  light 

Cheap 

Not  full 

Wavy 

Not  clear 

Dirty 

Damaged 

Flavor      .     .     60 


Body  and 

Texture     .      25 


Color  ...      15    

Finish.     .     .      10    

Total    .     .100    


Cheese  score-card  (Cornell) 


Perfect,  clean,  too  much  acid,  too  little  acid,  sour, 

sweet,  tainted. 
Weedy,  cowy,  old  milk,  bitter,  fishy,  yeasty,  fruity, 

rancid,  feedy. 

Perfect,   smooth,   silky,   waxy,   pasty,  stiff,  curdy, 

mealy. 
Greasy,   close,   loose,   gassy,   yeasty,   acidy,   sweet, 

watery,  too  dry. 

Perfect,   white  specks,   streaked,   seamy,   mottled, 

wavy. 
Rust  spots,  acid  cut,  too  high,  too  light,  uncolored. 

Perfect,  undesirable  size,  uneven,  edges,  cracked 
rinds,  unclean  surfaces,  wrinkled  bandage, 
greasy,  no  end  caps. 


Flavor 

Texture 

Color 


University  of  Wisconsin  score-cards 
Cheese 


45 

30 

15 

General  make-up  and  package 10 

Total 100 


SCORE-CARDS  '  465 


Butter 


Flavor 45 

Body        25 

Color 15 

Salt 10 

Package  . 5 

Total   .     , 100 

Butter  Classifications  and  Grades  (N.Y.    Mercantile  Exchange) 

1.  Butter  shall  be  classified  as  Creamery,  Process,  Factory,  Pack- 
ing Stock,  and  Grease  Butter. 

Definitions. 

2.  Creamery.  —  Butter  offered  under  this  classification  shall  have 
been  made  in  a  creamery  from  cream  separated  at  the  creamery  or 
gathered  from  farmers. 

3.  Process.  —  Butter  offered  under  this  classification  shall  be  such 
as  is  made  by  melting  butter,  clarifying  the  fat  therefrom,  and  rechurn- 
ing  the  same  with  fresh  milk,  cream,  or  skim  milk,  or  other  similar 
process. 

4.  Factory. —  Butter  offered  under  this  classification  shall  be  such 
as  is  collected  in  rolls,  lumps,  or  in  whole  packages  and  reworked  by 
the  dealer  or  shipper. 

5.  Packing  Stock.  —  Butter  offered  under  this  classification  shall 
be  original  farm-made  butter  in  rolls,  lumps,  or  otherwise,  without 
additional  moisture  or  salt. 

6.  Grease  Butter  shall  comprise  all  classes  of  butter  grading  below 
thirds,  or  of  packing  stock  grading  below  No.  3  as  hereinafter  specified, 
free  from  adulteration. 

Grades. 

7.  Creamery,  Process,  and  Factory  shall  be  graded  as  Specials, 
Extras,  Firsts,  Seconds,  and  Thirds  ;  and  Packing  Stock  shall  be 
graded  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3. 

8.  Grades  of  butter  must  conform  to  the  following  requirements  : 

Specials. 

9.  Shall  comprise  the  highest  grades  of  butter  obtainable  in  the 
season  when  offered,  under  the  various  classifications.     Ninety  per 

2h 


466  MILK  AND   MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 

cent  shall  conform  to  the  following  standard  ;  the  balance  shall  not 
grade   below   Extras. 

Flavor.  —  Must  be  fine,  sweet,  clean,  and  fresh,  if  of  current  make, 
and  fine,  sweet,  and  clean,  if  held. 

Body.  —  Must  be  firm  and  uniform. 

Color.  — A  light  straw  shade,  even  and  uniform. 

Salt.  —  Medium  salted. 

Package.  —  Sound,  good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Extras. 

10.  Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Specials,  and  must  be  fine  butter 
for  the  season  when  made  and  offered,  under  the  various  classifications. 
Ninety  per  cent  shall  conform  to  the  following  standard  ;  the  balance 
shall  not  grade  below  Firsts. 

Flavor.  —  Must  be  sweet,  clean,  and  fresh  if  of  current  make,  and 
sweet  and  clean  if  held. 

Body.  —  Must  be  good  and  uniform. 

Color.  —  A  light  straw  shade,  even  and  uniform. 

Salt.  —  Medium  salted. 

Package.  —  Sound,  good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Firsts. 

11.  Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Extras,  and  must  be  good  butter 
for  the  season  when  made  and  offered,  under  the  various  classifica- 
tions. Ninety  per  cent  shall  conform  to  the  following  standard; 
the  balance  shall  not  grade  below  Seconds. 

Flavor.  —  Must  be  good,  sweet  and  fresh  if  of  current  make,  and 
good  and  sweet  if  held. 

Body.  —  Must  be  firm  and  fairly  uniform. 
Color.  —  Reasonably  uniform,  neither  very  high  nor  very  light. 
Salt.  —  May  be  reasonably  high,  light,  or  medium. 
Package.  —  Sound,  good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Seconds. 

12.  Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Firsts. 
Flavor.  —  Must  be  reasonably  good. 

Body.  —  If  creamery,  must  be  solid  boring.     If  factory  or  process, 
must  be  90  per  cent  solid  boring. 
Color.  —  Fairly  uniform,  but  may  be  mottled. 


BUTTER   GRADES  467 

Salt.  —  May  be  high,  medium,  or  light. 
Package.  —  Good  and  uniform. 

Thirds. 

13.  Shall  be  a  grade  below  Seconds,  and  may  consist  of  promis- 
cuous lots. 

Flavor.  —  May  be  off-flavored  and  strong  on  top  and  sides. 

Body.  —  Not  required  to  draw  a  full  trier. 

Color.  —  May  be  irregular  or  mottled. 

Salt.  —  High,  light  or  irregular. 

Package.  —  Any  kind  of  package  mentioned  at  time  of  sale. 

No.  1  'packing  stock. 

14.  Shall  be  sweet  and  sound,  packed  in  large,  new,  or  good  uniform 
second-hand  barrels,  having  a  wooden  head  in  each  end,  or  in  new 
tubs,  either  to  be  parchment  paper  lined.  Barrels  and  tubs  to  be 
packed  full. 

No.  2  packing  stock. 

15.  Shall  be  reasonably  sweet  and  sound,  and  may  be  packed  in 
promiscuous  or  different  kinds  of  barrels,  tubs,  or  tierces,  without  being 
parchment-paper  lined,  and  may  be  packed  in  either  two-headed  or 
cloth-covered  barrels. 

No.  3  packing  stock. 

16.  Shall  be  a  grade  below  No.  2,  and  may  be  off-flavored,  or  strong  ; 
may  be  packed  in  any  kind  or  kinds  of  packages. 

17.  Charges  for  inspection  of  packing  stock  shall  be  the  same  as  the 
rules  call  for  on  other  grades. 

18.  Mold.  —  There  shall  be  no  grade  for  butter  that  shows  mold. 


468  MILK  AND  MILK  PRODUCTS;  DAIRY  FARMS 

Score-card  for  Production  of  Sanitary  Milk  (Cornell) 


Score 

SCORE 

Equipment 

Methods 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Perfect 

Allowed 

COWS 

cows 

Health 

6 

. 

Cleanliness  of  cows      . 

8 

Apparently  in  good 

(Free  from   dust,  7  ; 

health   ....   1 

free  from  coarse  dirt,  6) 

If  tested  with  tuber- 

culin within  a  year 

STABLE 

and  no  tuberculo- 

Cleanliness of  stable   . 

6 

sis  is  found,  or  if 

Floor 2 

tested    within    six 

Walls 1 

months  and  all  re- 

Ceiling and  ledges    1 

acting  animals  re- 

Mangers   and    parti- 

moved ....    5 

tions      ....    1 

(If   tested   within   a 

Windows.     .     .     .    1 

year  and  reacting 

Stable   air   at  milking 

animals  are  found 

time 

6 

. 

and  removed,  2.) 

Freedom  from  dust  3 

Food  (clean  and  whole- 

Freedom from  odors  2 

some)  

2 

Cleanliness     of    bed- 

Water  

2 

ding  1 

Clean  and  fresh   .    1 

Barnyard  clean  .     .    1 

2 

•     •     • 

Convenient          and 

Well  drained     .     .    1 

abundant      .     .    1 

Removal    of    manure 

STABLES 

daily     to     field     or 

Location  of  stable  .     . 

2 

.     .     . 

proper  pit    .... 

2 

•     •     • 

Well  drained    .     .    1 

(To  50  feet  from  sta- 

Free  from  contami- 

ble, 1.) 

nating  surroundings  1 

Construction  of  stable 

4 

MILK   ROOM 

Tight,  sound  floor  and 

Cleanliness     of     milk 

proper  gutter     .  2 

room 

3 

.     •     • 

Smooth,  tight  walls 

and  ceiling     .     .   1 

UTENSILS  AND  MILKING 

Proper  stall,  tie,  and 

Care    and    cleanliness 

manger      ...  1 

of  utensils    .... 

8 

.     .     . 

Provision     for     light : 

Thoroughly  washed  2 

Four  sq.  ft.  of  glass 

Sterilized  in  live  steam 

per  cow 

4 

. 

for  30  minutes      .    3 

(Three  sq.  ft..  3  ;  2 

(Placed    over    steam 

sq.ft.,  2;  lsq.ft.,1. 

jet  or  scalded  with 

Deduct  for  uneven  dis- 

boiling water,  2.) 

tribution.) 

Inverted  in  pure  air  3 

Bedding 

1 

. 

Cleanliness  of  milking 

9 

.     .     . 

Ventilation      .... 

7 

. 

Clean,  dry  hands  .    3 

Provision    for    fresh 

Udders   washed    and 

air,       controllable 

dried      ....    6 

flue  system    .     .  3 

(Udders  cleaned  with 

(Windows  hinged  at 

moist  cloth,  4  ;  cleaned 

bottom,  1.50;  slid- 

with dry  cloth  or  brush 

ing     windows,     1  ; 

at  least  15  minutes  be- 

other  openings,  .50) 

1  fore  milking,  1.) 

INSPECTION  SCORES 


469 


Score 

Score 

Equipment 

Methods 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Cubic  feet  of  space 

HANDLING    THE    MILK 

per  cow,  500  feet  3 

Cleanliness    of   attend- 

(Less than  500  ft.,  2: 

ants  in  milk  room 

2 

less  than  400  ft.,  1  ; 

Milk  removed     imme- 

less than  300  ft.,  0) 

diately    from    stable 

Provision    for    con- 

without pouring  from 

trolling     tempera- 

pail  

2 

ture  1 

Cooled        immediately 

UTENSILS 

after     milking     each 

Construction  and  con- 

cow  

2 

.     .     . 

dition  of  utensils .     . 

1 

Cooled  below  50°  F.     . 

5 

.     .     . 

Water  for  cleaning .     . 

1 

. 

(51°to55°,  4;  50°  to 

60°,  2.) 
Stored  below  50°  F  .     . 
(51°  to  55°,  2  ;  56°  to 

60°,  1.) 

(Clean,     convenient 
and  abundant.) 
Small-top  milking  pail 

3 

3 

•     •     • 

Facilities    for     steam 

(hot  water,  .5)      .     . 

1 

(If  delivered  twice  a 

(Should  be  in  milk 

day    allow    perfect 

house,  not  in  kitchen.) 

score) 

Milk  cooler     .... 

1 

Transportation    below 

2 

.     .     . 

Clean  milking  suits     . 

1 

.     .     . 

50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  1.50;  56° 

MILK    ROOM,    OR   MILK 

to  60°,  1.) 

HOUSE 

Location     free      from 

contaminating    sur- 

roundings   .... 

1 

. 

Construction  of    milk 

room 

3 

. 

Floor,     walls,      and 

ceiling  ....    1 

Light,      ventilation, 

screens      ...    1 

Separate   rooms  for 

washing      utensils 

and  handling  milk  1 

Total 

Total 

40 

.     .     . 

60 

Equipment +  Methods 


Final  Score 


Note  1.  —  If  any  exceptionally  filthy  condition  is  found,  particularly  dirty  utensils,  the 
total  score  may  be  further  limited. 

Note  2.  —  If  the  water  is  exposed  to  dangerous  contamination,  or  if  there  is  evidence  of 
the  presence  of  a  dangerous  disease  in  animals  or  attendants,  the  score  shall  be  0. 


Milk  inspection  of  farm  dairies  (Cornell) 


Dairj^man Date  . 

P.  O Location 


Cans  or  Bottles 


No.  cows  milking  .     .     .  In  herd     .     .     Qts.  Milk  . 

Name  of  family  physician 

Milk  sold  to License  No. 

Report  by At  milking  time  ?     .     .    .     .  Hour 


M. 


470  MILK  AND  MILK  PRODUCTS;  DAIRY  FARMS 

Equipment 

I.  Cows. 

Do  all  cows  appear  healthy  ? 

What  signs  are  there  of  disease  ? 

Are  udders  sound  ? 

Are  cows  tuberculin  tested  ? 

Date  of  last  test By  whom  tested  ? 

Number  of  cows  added  to  herd  since  last  test 

Number  and  kind  of  other  animals  in  cow  stable 

Kinds  of  feeds  used    .     .     .     Roughage  ....  Concentrated    .    .     . 

Are  they  of  good  quality  ? 

Method  of  watering  .     .     .    Cleanliness  of  trough  and  surroundings  .     .    . 

Is  water  supply  abundant  ? . 

Where  are  cows  kept  when  sick  or  at  calving  time? 

II.  Stables. 

Is  stable  well  located  ? 

Construction  of  ceiling Walls     .     .     .     Are  ceiling  and  walla 

smooth  and  tight  ?     .     .     .     . 

Size  of  stable,  length Width Height 

Size  of  stall,  length Width 

Kind  of  stanchion Kind  of  mangers 

Kind  of  floor State  of  repair 

Kind  of  bedding  used 

Cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  cow 

Number  and  size  of  windows 

Distribution  of  light Sq.  ft.  of  light  per  cow 

How  is  stable  ventilated  ? 

Any  special  provision  for  controlling  temperature? 

Kinds  and  number  of  other  animals,  if  any,  in  same  room  with  cows  .    . 

III.  Utensils. 

Are  all  utensils  well  constructed  and  comparatively  easy  to  clean  ?    .    .    . 

Are  milk  pails  covered  or  small  topped  ? 

Is  any  cooler  used  ?     .     .     .     .     Kind  ? 

Are  there  any  facilities  for  sterilizing  utensils  ? 

What  are  they  ? 

IV.  Milk  room  or  milk  house. 

Location 

Is  milk  house  near  any  source  of  contamination,  such  as  pig  sty,  privy? 

Is  milk  house  well  drained  ? 

Construction,  Floor Walls Ceiling 

State  of  repair  ? 

Is  house  well  lighted? Ventilated? 

Are  windows  prov-^ided  with  screens  ? 

Are  there  separate  rooms  for  handling  milk  and  washing  utensils  ?    .    .    . 

_    ^  Method 

I.  Cou^s. 

Are  cows  free  from  dirt  ? Dust  ? 

How  often  are  cows  cleaned  ? 

How  are  cows  cleaned  ? 

Are  udders  and  flank  clipped  ?    .     .     .     .    How  often  ? 

II.  Stable. 

Is  stable  clean  ? 

Is  there  dust  or  cobwebs  on  ceiling  ? Ledges  ? 

Isthere  old  dried  manure  on  floor?     .     .     .    Walls?    .     .    .     Mangers  or 
partitions?     .... 

Is  stable  whitewashed  ?     .     .     .     .     How  often  ? 

Is  stable  air  free  from  dust  and  dirt  ? 

Is  feeding  done  before  or  after  milking? 

Has  the  stable  any  bad  odors? 


CLEAN  MILK  471 


Is  bedding  clean  ? 

Is  barnyard  clean  ? Well  drained  ?    .    .    .    . 

How  often  is  manure  removed  from  stable  ? 

How  far  is  manure  removed  from  stable  ? 

Is  pasture  free  from  mud-holes  or  stagnant  water  ? 

III.  Milk  room. 

Is  milk  room  clean  ? Has  it  any  bad  odors  ?     .     .     .     . 

IV.  Utensils  and  milking. 

Are  utensils  clean  ?     .     .     .     Sterilized  ?     .     .     .     How  ? 

How  soon  after  milking  are  utensils  cleaned  ? 

How  are  utensils  cared  for  after  milking  ? 

Are  milkers  healthy  ?  .     .     .  Do  they  milk  with  clean,  dry  hands  ?    . 

Do  they  wear  special  over-all  suits  ? 

How  often  are  suits  washed  ? 

Where  are  suits  kept  when  not  in  use  ? 

How  long  before  milking  are  cows  cleaned  ? 

Are  udders  wiped  with  damp  cloth  before  milking  ? 

Is  stable  floor  dampened  before  milking  ?  .     .  Where  is  milk  strained 

V.  Handling  the  milk. 

Are  attendants  in  milk  room  clean  ? 

What  kind  of  a  strainer  is  used  ? 

How  soon  after  milking  is  milk  cooled  ? 

What  kind  of  a  cooler  is  used  ? 

To  how  low  a  temperature  is  milk  cooled  ?     .     .     .     .  Is  ice  used  ?     . 
How  is  milk  protected  during  transportation  to  market  ? 


Rules  for  the  production  of  clean  milk  (Ross) 

The  presence  of  bacteria  in  milk  is  what  causes  the  milk  to  become  unfit  for 
human  food.  If  there  were  no  germs  in  milk,  it  would  keep  sweet  and  whol3- 
some  indefinitely.  The  problem  of  producing  clean  milk  is  therefore  one  of  keep- 
ing bacteria  out  of  the  milk. 

The  following  rules  are  comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive  to  follow,  and 
at  the  same  time  they  will  do  much  to  help  the  dairymen  produce  clean  milk  :  — 

1.  Keep  the  cow  clean. 

2.  Clip  the  hair  about  the  flank  and  udder  at  least  twice  each  year. 

3.  Wipe  the  udder  with  a  damp  cloth  just  before  milking. 

4.  Do  not  brush  or  feed  the  cow  just  before  milking. 

5.  Do  not  sweep  the  floor  within  three-quarters  of  an  hour  before  milking. 

6.  Use  a  small-top  or  covered  milk-pail. 

7.  Milk  with  clean  hands  and  clean  suits. 

8.  Rinse  all  of  the  milk  utensils  with  cold  water,  and  then  wash  them 
thoroughly  with  a  brush  and  hot  water  in  which  washing  powder  has  been  dis- 
solved.    Then  scald  everything  in  boiling  water. 

9.  Have  the  barns  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  Bacteria  do  not  thrive  in 
sunlight.     Have  not  less  than  four  square  feet  of  glass  per  cow. 

10.  Keep  the  milk  utensils  in  a  place  free  from  dust. 

11.  In  purchasing  dairy  apparatus,  insist  that  all  seams  be  filled  with  solder. 
Cracks  and  seams  make  an  ideal  place  in  which  germs  grow. 

12.  Keep  the  milk  cold  (at  least  50°  F.)  after  milking. 

Rules  for  care  of  milk  by  consumer 

1.  Do  not  leave  milk  sitting  on  the  door  step  or  other  place  exposed  to  dust 
and  rays  of  the  sun. 

2.  Do  not  keep  milk  in  the  same  compartment  with  other  food. 

3.  Keep  the  milk  on  ice  from  time  of  delivery  until  it  is  used. 


472 


MILK  AND   MILK  PRODUCTS;    DAIRY  FARMS 


Sanitary  inspection  of  city  milk   plants  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  Dairy  Division) 


Owner  or  manager Trade  name 

City Street  and  No. State 

f  Milk 

Gallons  sold  daily     Cream 

[  Buttermilk 
-     Date  of  inspection ,  19  . 


Number  of  wagons  — 
Permit  or  license  No 


Equipment 

il 

Methods 

o  5 

02  Cl, 

Plant : 

Location 

Convenience 6 

Surroundings        .     .     .     .12 

Arrangement 

Proper  rooms 3 

Convenience 4 

Construction 

Floor 5 

Walls 3 

Ceiling 1 

Light     

18 
7 
9 

1 

1 
20 

28 

4 
11 

Plant  : 

Cleanliness 

Floor 6 

Walls 4 

Ceilings 1 

Doors 1 

Windows 1 

Good  order 1 

Free  from  odors   ...     1 
Machinery  and  utensils : 

Cleanliness 

Milk : 

Handling 

(Clarifying,     pasteurizing, 
cooling,  bottling) 

Storage      

45°  F.  or  below    ...  20 

45°  to  50°  F 15 

50°  to  55°  F 10 

Wagons 

Cleanliness 3 

Protection  of  product  .     .    3 

Salesroom  : 

Cleanliness 

ADDITIONAL  DEDUCTIONS 

For  exceptionally  bad  conditions 

15 
25 

Ventilation 

Screens      

Machinery  and  utensils    .     .     . 
Kind  and  quality      ...    7 
(Steam  or  hot  water,  bottle 
and    can    washer,    bottling 
machine,      drying     racks, 
crates,    sinks,    pasteurizer, 
cold  storage.) 

Condition 7 

Arrangement 6 

Water  for  cleaning 

Wagons : 

Construction,  condition   . 

Salesroom 

Location 4 

Construction 4 

Equipment 3 

25 
20 

6 
9 

100 

100 

ADDITIONAL  DEDUCTIONS 

For  exceptionally  bad  conditions : 

Total  deductions       .     .     . 
Net  total 

Total  deductions      .... 
Net  total 

CHAPTER    XXV 

Construction,   Farm  Engineering,  Mechanics 

Farm  engineering  is  concerned  with  layouts,  and  the  projection  of 
physical  enterprises  on  the  land,  —  as  surveying,  laying  out  drains, 
irrigation  works,  roads,  bridges,  and  the  like.  Farm  mechanics  has  to 
do  with  construction,  and  the  principles  of  physics  underlying  it. 
Farm  machinery  as  a  department  of  knowledge  has  to  do  with  the 
application  of  mechanics  to  those  devices  known  as  machines. 
Farm  architecture  is  concerned  with  the  building  of  barns,  residences, 
and  other  housing  structures. 

Silos 

Least  number  of  dairy  cows  that  should  be  fed  from  silos  of  given  diameters 
(Rawl  and  Conover) 


Diameter  of  Silo  (in  feet) 

Number  of  Cows 
TO  BE  Fed 

10 

12 

12 

17 

14 

23 

16 

30 

18 

38 

Feeding  capacity  of  silos  (Wis.  Sta.). 

When  the  cows  are  getting  40  pounds  of  silage  daily,  each  cow 
should  be  allowed  4  to  5  square  feet  of  feeding  surface  in  the  silo. 
Ten  cows  would  require  a  feeding  surface  of  50  feet.  A  silo  8  feet  in 
diameter  would  have  a  cross  section,  or  feeding  surface,  of  50  square 
feet.  For  10  cows,  therefore,  a  silo  should  be  8  feet  in  diameter.  Fif- 
teen cows  should  have  a  silo  10  feet  in  diameter  ;  20  cows  should  have 
a  silo  12  feet  in  diameter.  The  diameter  of  silos  required  for  different 
numbers  of  cows  is  shown  in  the  following  table.  It  is  assumed  that 
each  cow  eats  40  pounds  of  silage  daily. 

473 


474      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 


Feed  for  180  days 


Silo  30  Ft.  Deep, 
24  Ft.  of  Silage 

Silo  36  Ft.  Deep, 
30  Ft.  of  Silage 

Number  of  Cows 
IN  Herd 

Fed  down  at  rate  1  ^  in.  daily 

Fed  down  at  rate  of  2  in.  daily 

Tons  Silage 

Inside 
Diameter 

Tons  Silage 

Inside 
Diameter 

14 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

52 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 

10 
13 
15 
16 
18 
19 
21 
22 
23 
25 
27 
29 
31 
33 

36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 

9 
11 
12 
14 
15 
16 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 
25 
26 
28 

Approximate  quantity  of  silage  required  per  day  (111.  Sta.) 


Kind  of  Stock 


Daily  Ration 


Beef  Cattle  — 

Wintering  calves,  8  months  old    .     .     . 

Wintering  breeding  cows 

Fattening  beef  cattle  18-22  months  old 

First  stage  of  fattening 

Latter  stage  of  fattening      .... 

Dairy  cattle 

Sheep  — 

Wintering  breeding  sheep 

Fattening  lambs 

Fattening  sheep 


Pounds 

15  to  25 
30  to  50 

20  to  30 
12  to  20 
30  to  50 

3  to  5 

2  to  3 

3  to  4 


This  table,  in  connection  with  the  following,  may  be  used  to  de- 
termine the  size  of  silo  needed  to  fulfill  various  conditions.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  silage  is  to  be  fed  to  a  herd  of  40  dairy  cattle  at  the 
rate  of  40  pounds  per  head  per  day,  a  silo  16  or  18  feet  in  diameter 
will  be  satisfactory. 


SILO   FIGURES 


475 


Capacity  of  silo  (King) 


Inside 
Diameter 

Height 

Capacity 
Tons 

Acreage  to 
FILL,  15  Tons 
TO  THE  Acre 

Amount  that 
should  be 
FED  Daily 

Pounds 

10 

r28 

42 

2.8 

525 

10 

30 

47 

3.0 

525 

10 

32 

51 

3.4 

515 

10 

34 

56 

3.7 

525 

10 

38 

65 

4.3 

525 

10 

40 

70 

4.6 

525 

12 

28 

61 

4.1 

755 

12 

30 

67 

4.5 

755 

12 

32 

74 

5.0 

755 

12 

34 

80 

5.3 

755 

12 

36 

87 

5.8 

755 

12 

38 

94 

6.4 

755 

12 

40 

101 

7.3 

755 

14 

28 

83 

5.5 

1030 

14 

30 

91 

6.1 

1030 

14 

32 

100 

6.7 

1030 

14 

34 

109 

7.2 

1030 

14 

36 

118 

7.9 

1030 

14 

38 

128 

8.5 

1030 

14 

40 

138 

9.2 

1030 

16 

28 

108 

7.2 

1340 

16 

32 

131 

8.7 

1340 

16 

34 

143 

9.5 

1340 

16 

36 

]55 

10.3 

1340 

16 

38 

167 

11.1 

1340 

16 

40 

180 

12.0 

1340 

18 

30 

151 

10.0 

1700 

18 

32 

166 

11.0 

1700 

18 

34 

181 

12.0 

1700 

18 

36 

196 

13.2 

1700 

18 

38 

212 

14.1 

1700 

18 

40 

229 

15.26 

1700 

18 

42 

246 

16.4 

1700 

18 

44 

264 

17.6 

1700 

18 

46 

282 

18.8 

1700 

20 

30 

187 

12.5 

2100 

20 

32 

205 

13.6 

2100 

20 

34 

224 

15.0 

2100 

20 

36 

243 

16.2 

2100 

20 

40 

281 

18.8 

2100 

20 

42 

300 

20.0 

2100 

20 

44 

320 

21.3 

2100 

20 

46 

340 

22.6 

2100 

20 

48 

361 

24.0 

2100 

20 

50 

382 

25.5 

2100 

476      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,  MECHANICJ 

Necessary  diameter  of  silos  for  feeding  different  numbers  of  cows  while  re- 
moving  from  2  to  3,2  inches  of  silage  daily  (King) 

Each  cow  is  allowed  40  pounds  of  silage  daily  ;  silos  to  be  of  sufficient  capac- 
ity to  hold  silage  for  ISO  days. 


Silo  30  Ft.  deep,  no  Partition 
Mean  Depth  fed  Daily,  2  In. 

Silo  24  Ft.  deep  with  Partition 
Mean  Depth  fed  Daily,  3.2  In. 

No.  OF  Cows 

Contents 

Round 
diam- 
eter 
in  ft. 

Square 

sides  in 

ft. 

Contents 

Round 
diam- 
eter 
in  ft. 

Sauare 

sides  in 

ft. 

Tons 

Cu.  Ft. 

Tons 

Ct.  Ft. 

30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
90 
100 

108 
144 
180 
216 
252 
324 
360 

4,091 
6,545 

8,182 

9,818 

11,454 

14,727 

16,364 

15.0 

16.75 

18.75 

20.50 

22.00 

25.00 

26.50 

12  X  14 
14  X  16 
16  X  18 
18  X  18 
20  X  20 
22  X  24 
24  X  24 

108 
144 
180 
216 
252 
324 
360 

5,510 
7,347 
9,184 
11,020 
12,857 
16,531 
18,367 

17.00 
20.00 
22.00 
24.00 
26.00 
29.75 
31.25 

16  X  16 
18  X  18 
20  X  20 
22  X  22 
22  X  26 
26  X28 
28  X28 

Other  silo  figures. 

Silos  are  now  preferably  cylindrical,  for  the  silage  packs  and  settles 
more  evenly  than  in  square  or  cornered  constructions.  Most  silos 
now  are  wooden  tank-like  structures  built  of  upright  wooden  staves. 
In  the  northernmost  dairy  regions,  the  silo  may  be  inside  the  barn ; 
but  usually  it  is  outside  the  main  barn  structure. 

Weight  of  silage  in  silos  of  different  depths  two  days  after  filling  the  silo 

(King) 


Depth  of  Silage 

Weight  at  Different 

Mean  Weight  of  Silage  for 

Depths 

Whole  Depth  of  Silo 

Feet 

Lb.  per  cu.  ft. 

Lb.  per  cu.  fl. 

1 

18.7 

18.7 

5 

25.4 

22.1 

10 

33.1 

26.1 

15 

40.0 

29.8 

20 

46.2 

33.3 

25 

51.7 

36.5 

30 

56.4 

39.6 

35 

61.0 

42.8 

SILO   AND    BARN  FIGURES 


477 


Approximate  capacity  of  cylindrical  silos  for  well-matured  corn  silage,  in 

tons  (King) 


r^ 

Inside  Diameter  in  Feet 

5- 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

23 

23 

24 

25 

26 

Tons     Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

20   . 

58.8 

67.0 

75.6 

84.7 

94.4 

104.6 

115.3 

126.6 

138.3 

150.6 

163.4 

176.8 

21    . 

62.9 

71.6 

80.8 

90.6 

100.9 

111.8 

123.3!  135.3 

147.9 

161.0 

174.7 

189.0 

22   . 

67.4 

76.5 

86.4 

96.8 

107.9 

119.6 

131.8  144.7 

158.1 

172.2 

186.8 

202.1 

23   . 

71.7 

81.6 

92.1 

103.3 

115.1 

127.5 

140.6!  154.3 

168.7 

183.6 

199.3 

215.5 

24   . 

76.1 

86.6 

97.81  109.6 

122.1 

135.3 

149.2  163.7 

179.0 

194.9 

211.5 

228.7 

25   . 

80.6 

89.6 

103.6  116.1 

129.3  143.3 

158.0 

173.4 

189.5 

206.4 

223.9 

242.2 

26   . 

85.5 

97.2;  109.8  123.0 

137.1  151.9 

167.5 

183.8 

200.9  218.8 

237.4 

256.7 

27   . 

90.2 

102.6  115.8  129.8 

144.7  160.3 

176.7 

194.0 

212.0  230.8 

250.5 

270.9 

28   . 

95.0 

108.1 

122.0  136.8 

152.4  168.9 

186.2 

204.3 

223.3  243.2 

263.9 

285.4 

29   . 

99.9 

113.7 

128.3  143.9 

160.3  177.6 

195.8 

214.9 

234.9  255.8 

277.6 

300.2 

30  . 

105.0 

119.4 

134.8,  151.1 

168.4!  186.6 

205.7 

225.8 

246.8'  268.7 

291.6 

315.3 

31    . 

109.8 

124.9 

141.1  158.2 

176.2  195.2 

215.3 

236.3 

258.21281.8 

305.1 

330.0 

32   . 

115.1 

135.9 

147.8  165.7 

184.6  204.6 

225.5 

247.5 

270.5  294.6 

319.6 

345.7 

Bam  Figures 

A  comparison  of  the  cost  of  material  in  round  and  rectangular  barns,  in- 
cluding foundation  and  silos  (111.  Sta.) 


Lumber  in  barn      .     .     .     . 
Material  in  foundation    . 
Material  in  silo       .... 
Total  cost  of  material  in  barn 
Actual  money  saved   . 
Proportional  cost   .... 


RODND 

Barn,  60 

Feet  In 

Diameter 


$799.76 

86.89 

159.01 


$1045.66 
100% 


Rectangular  Barn, 
36  X  78V2  Feet 


Plank  frame 


$1023.27 
105.90 
295.26 


$1424.43 

378.77 
136% 


Mortise 
frame 


$1233.41 
105.90 
295.26 


$1634.57 
588.91 
156% 


Wire  Fence 

On  the  model  form  of  woven-wire  fence,  the  tensile  strain  figures  to 
a  very  small  degree.  What  the  manufacturer  aims  to  accomplish  is 
to  produce  a  hard  wire  without  having  this  of  spring-steel  grade,  so  that 
it  will  stand  more  or  less  abuse  and  still  not  be  so  hard  but  that  it  can 
be  spliced.  Some  types  of  fence  are  of  rather  weak  construction,  and 
for  top  and  bottom  wire  high  carbon  steel  is  used  to  hold  up  the  fabric. 


478      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 


1  Acre 

1  Acre 

1  Acre 

Requires 

7. 

Requires 

s 

Requires 

56  Rods 

!    1 

52 

2 

50  Rods 

of 

Rod!«of 

o 

10  ft.  of 

Fence 

1.    " 

a 

Fence 

w 

fence 

12  rods  10  It  9  In. 

10  rods 

8  rods 

16  rods 

22  rods 

2  Acres 

3  Acres 

Requires 

^                        K 

Requires  88  Rods 

72  rods  of 

O                J 

of  Fence 

Fence 

I    1 

20  rods 

4  Acres 
Requires  1  04 

25  rods  5  ft. 

Rods  of 

Fence 

4  Acres 

0 

Requires  lOl  Rod*      | 

3^  feet  ol 

Fence 

w 

c< 

Fig.  17.  —  Dimensions  of  1,  2,  3,  and  4  aero  lots,  and  fonco  roquired  to  enclose 
them.  Dimensions  given  are  exact,  so  that  in  buying  fence,  sufficient  allow- 
ance should  be  made  to  cover  fence  taken  up  in  wrapping  around  end  and 
corner  posts. 


WIRE  FENCING 
Gauges,  sizes,  and  weights  of  plain  wire 


479 


Gauge 

Diameter  of  Gauge, 
Inches 

Weight  One  Mile, 
Pounds 

Feet  to  Pound 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15  .....  . 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

.2830 
.2625 
.2437 
.2253 
.2070 
.1920 
.1770 
.1620 
.1483 
.1350 
.1205 
.1055 
.0915 
.0800 
.0720 
.0625 
.0540 
.0475 
.0410 
.0348 

1128.0 
970.4 
836.4 
714.8 
603.4 
519.2 
441.2 
369.6 
309.7 
256.7 
204.5 
156.7 
117.9 
90.13 
73.01 
55.01 
41.07 
31.77 
23.67 
17.05 

4.681 
5.441 
6.313 
7.386 
8.750 
10.17 
11.97 
14.29 
17.05 
20.57 
25.82 
33.69 
44.78 
58.58 
72.32 
95.98 
128.6 
166.2 
223.0 
309.6 

Barb-wire. 

In  barb-wire  fencing,  it  is  reasonably  safe  to  estimate  that  four- 
point  cattle  barb-wire  (which  means  barbs  approximately  five  inches 
apart)  weighs  about  one  pound  to  the  rod  ;  and  that  four-point  hog 
barb-wire  (barbs  about  three  inches  apart),  measures  about  thirteen 
feet  to  the  pound. 

Galvanized  coiled  spring-steel  wire. 

Coiled  or  wavy  wire  is  employed  in  making  fences  in  various 
forms,  although  it  is  not  used  to  any  great  extent.  It  is  so  coiled 
that  it  will  retain  its  springiness  against  all  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion due  to  weather  conditions. 


Gauge 

Feet  per  Pound 

Gauge 

Feet  per  Pound 

No.  7 

No.  8 

No.  9 

11.00 
13.33 
16.70 

No.  10 
No.  11 
No.  12 

20.00 
24.61 
32.00 

480     CONSTRUCTION^  FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 


■4  mile  or  SO  rods 

40  rods  ^ 

NrwU 

<0 

111 

i             1 

1             1 

e      80  Acres     ^ 

i  Requires    1^  miles  jB 
g  o/-  480  rods  of  fence^ 
>^             <o  enclose           ^ 

i  s  1 

§  s  s 

40  rods 

SOrodj 

4i 

aoroda 

25i 

Acres 

so  red* 

40  rods 

2     10     2 

^    Acres   J 
40rods 

14  mile  or  80  rod»      | 

i             1 

«     40  Acres    8 

i 

O 

e      Requires  1  mile     0 

i     or  320   rods   of     ± 
i      fence  to  enclose     *§ 

2^                      at 

CO 

'4  mUe  or  80  rods 

1/4  mile  or  80  rods 

s 

$^  mile  or  160  rods 

1 

1                          i 

s                                s 

t                   160  Acres                    - 

*               Requires  2  miles  or  640  rods                * 

4                           of  lence  (o  enclose                           £ 

^mlle  or  100  rods 

Fio.  18.  —  Number  of  rods  of  fence  required  to  enclose  fields  of  different  siaea 


ROPES.      TILE-DRAINING 
Tensile  Strengths  of  Ropes 


481 


Manila  Rope 

Manila  Rope 

Cast-steel  Wire 

Rope 

3  STRANDS 

,    3G  IN.    LONG 

4    STRANDS, 

36   IN.    LONG 

e 

)  strands 

Circum- 

Breaking 

Circum- 

Breaking 

Circum- 

No. of 

Breaking 

ference 

load 

ference 

load 

ference 

strand 

load 

in. 

lb. 

in. 

lb. 

in. 

lb. 

1.625 

1,750 

2.825 

4,250 

1.062 

6 

6,285 

2.25 

3,680 

3.375 

6,050 

1.375 

19 

11,850 

2.375 

4,750 

3.75 

7,700 

1.563 

19 

12,590 

2.812 

5,400 

4.25 

11,140 

1.595 

19 

19,500 

3.188 

6,800 

4.825 

14,020 

1.780 

19 

19,150 

3.625 

7,635 

5.375 

16,550 

1.938 

19 

21,510 

4.375 

8,980 

3.188 

7,700 

4.75 

11,870 

3.125 

7,630 

5.125 

15,100 

2.562 

2,850 

3.033 

4,930 

4.188 

11,650 

Tile-draining 

Number  of  feet  of  drain  tile  required  per  acre  when  placed  the  specified 

distances  apart  (Fippin) 

20  feet  apart 2180  feet 

25  feet  apart 1743  feet 

30  feet  apart 1452  feet 

40  feet  apart 1090  feet 

50  feet  apart 872  feet 

100  feet  apart 436  feet 

150  feet  apart 290  feet 

200  feet  apart 218  feet 

Limit  of  size  of  drain  tile  to  grade  and  length  (Elliott) 


Size  of  Tile  in  Inches 

Minimum 
Grade  per 
100  Ft.  in 

Feet 

Limit  of 
Length 
in  Feet 

2 

.10 
.09 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.04 
.04 
.04 

600 
800 
1600 
2000 
2500 
2800 
3000 
3500 
4000 
4500 
5300 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8       

9        

10        

11        

12 

2i 


482      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,  MECHANICS 

These  limits  are  based  on  perfectly  laid  tile,  which  is  seldom 
achieved.  The  lay  of  the  land,  the  nature  of  the  earth,  the  occur- 
rence of  rocks  and  trees  and  other  obstructions,  the  necessity  of 
making  detours,  and  other  conditions,  all  influence  the  theoretical 
limits  of  efficiency. 

Conditions  that  determine  the  size  of  the  drains,  particularly  the 
mains  (Elliott)  :  — 

1.  The  depth  of  water  to  be  removed  in  twenty-four  hours  over  the 
area  of  the  drainage  system. 

2.  Rapidity  with  which  the  water  is  brought  to  the  main,  that  is, 
the  number,  size,  and  fall  of  the  laterals. 

3.  The  existence  of  emergency  surface  drainage. 

4.  The  texture  and  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  that  is,  whether 
it  is  open  and  porous  or  dense  and  retentive. 

5.  The  grade  of  the  ditch. 

Number  of  acres  from  which  %  inch  of  water  will  he  removed  in  24  hours 
by  outlet  tile-drains  of  different  diameters  and  different  lengths  with  dif- 
ferent grades  (adapted  from  Elliott) 


Grade  in  Inches  per  100  Feet 

1 

2 

3 

6 

9 

DiABi 

I- 

ETEI 

'                                        f 

OF 
TiLI 

,                   Length  op  Drain  in  Feet 

Inchi 

1000 

2000 

1000 

2000 

1000 

2000 

1000 

2000 

1000 

2000 

Acres  of  Land  drained  by  Different  Sizes  of 

Tile 

5 

19.1 

15.7 

22.1 

19.4 

25.1 

22.7 

32.0 

30.3 

37.7 

36.3 

6 

29.9 

24.8 

34.8 

30.5 

39.6 

35.9 

50.5 

47.8 

59.4 

57.3 

7 

44.1 

36.4 

31.1 

44.8 

58.0 

52.8 

74.0 

70.1 

87.1 

84.1 

8 

61.4 

50.7 

71.2 

62.6 

80.9 

73.6 

103.3 

98.0 

121.4 

117.3 

9 

82.2 

68.1 

95.3 

83.8 

108.4 

89.6 

138.1 

131.3 

162.6 

157.1 

10 

106.7 

88.5 

123.9 

108.9 

140.6 

128.1 

179.2 

170.5 

211.1 

204.4 

12 

167.7 

139.3 

194.6 

171.6 

221.1 

201.8 

281.8 

268.6 

331.8 

321.7 

14 

245.3 

204.3 

284.9 

251.7 

3  •-'3. 5 

296.1 

412.9 

393.9 

485.8 

472.1 

16 

341.4 

284.6 

369.3 

350.4 

449.9 

412.2 

573.7 

548.8 

675.2 

657.3 

18 

456.4 

381.3 

529.1 

470.1 

601.8 

552.5 

767.4 

733.1 

902.3 

880.5 

20 

591.5 

245.9 

686.3 

610.5 

780.0 

718.2 

994.5 

954.6 

1170.0 

1144.0 

TILE-DRAINING 


483 


Average  list  price  per  one  thousand  (1000)  feet  of  drain  tile  quoted  by 
dealers  in  New  York  (Fippin) .     Subject  to  large  discounts 


Diameter  of  Tile 

Price  per 
1000  Feet 

Diameter  of  Tile 

Price  per 
1000  Feet 

2  inches 

2}4  inches 

3  inches  

4  inches  

5  inches  

$13.50 
16.50 
21.00 
34.00 
44.00 

6  inches     .... 

8  inches  .... 
10  inches  .... 
12  inches     .... 

$62.00 

95.00 

165.00 

230.00 

Prices,  weights,  and  average  carload  of  tile  (Wis.  Sta.) 


Price  per  1000 

Feet,   including 

Diameter 

Freight  at 
Rates  prevail- 
ing IN  THE 
Southern  Half 
OF  Wisconsin 

Pounds 
PER  Foot 

Average  Car  Load 

Inches 

Feet 

Rods 

4 

$18.00 

6 

6500 

390 

5 

26.00 

8 

5000 

300 

6 

35.00 

11 

4000 

240 

7 

45.00 

14 

3000 

180 

8 

60.00 

18 

2400 

144 

10 

80.00 

25 

1600 

96 

12 

120.00 

33 

1000 

60 

14 

185.00 

43 

800 

48 

15 

200.00 

50 

600 

36 

16 

225.00 

53 

500 

30 

18 

310.00 

70 

400 

24 

20 

400.00 

83 

330 

20 

22 

500.00 

100 

320 

19 

24 

550.00 

112 

300 

18 

27 

800.00 

150 

240 

15 

30 

1000.00 

192 

160 

10 

Cost  per  rod  of  digging  the  trench,  laying  the  tile,  and  blinding  with  four 
inches  of  earth  (Wis.  Sta.) 


Feet  in 

Depth 

Size  of  Tile 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Inches 

4    . 

$  0.30 

$0.50 

$0.80 

$1.25 

5    . 

.35 

.55 

0.85 

1.30 

6    . 

.40 

.60 

0.90 

1.35 

8    . 

.45 

.65 

0.95 

1.40 

10    . 

.50 

.70 

1.00 

1.45 

12    . 

.55 

.75 

1.05 

1.50 

484      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 

Drainage  points  (Fippin). 

1.  Surface  or  open  ditches  are: 

Of  low  efficiency, 

Wasteful  of  land, 

Expensive  to  maintain, 

Harbor  weeds, 

Interfere  with  cultural  operations. 

2.  Stone  drains  are: 

Not  permanent, 

They  have  a  small  capacity, 

Therefore,  are  expensive. 

Ten  good  rules 

1.  Use  dense,  hard-burned  tile. 

2.  Water  enters  through  the  joints. 

3.  Round  or  hexagonal  shapes  are  best. 

4.  An  even  grade  is  essential. 

5.  Avoid  tile  smaller  than  three  inches  on  low  grades. 

6.  Hill  land  may  need  drainage. 

7.  Ditching  plows  are  very  useful. 

8.  Carefully  construct  and  protect  the  outlet. 

9.  Depth  in  heavy  clay,  two  to  three  feet. 

10.  Depth  in  loam  and  sandy  loam,  three  to  four  feet. 

Donets  in  land  drainage  (Jones,  Wis.  Sta.). 

1.  Don't  dodge  the  wet  spots  in  cultivated  fields.  A  few  dol- 
lars spent  in  drainage  will  make  these  spots  yield  valuable  crops 
and  will  make  the  cultivation  of  the  whole  field  more  convenient. 

2.  Don't  be  content  with  raising  marsh  grass  on  muck  and  peat 
marshes.  Drainage  is  the  step  that  begins  their  adaptation  to  tame 
grasses  and  other  farm  crops. 

3.  Don't  condemn  the  muck  and  peat  marshes  on  which  timothy 
has  died  out  once.  Drain  thoroughly  and  then  apply  barnyard  ma- 
nure or  commercial  fertilizers,  as  is  done  on  uplands.  In  other 
words,  give  the  marshes  a  square  deal. 

4.  Don't  wait  for  nature  to  drain  the  wet  lands  without  assist- 


TILE-DRAINING  485 

ance.  Nature  alone  did  not  remove  the  stumps  and  stones  from 
the  wooded,  stony  lands.  Neither  does  she  irrigate  the  arid  lands 
of  the  West  without  the  aid  of  man. 

5.  Don't  let  damaging  water  get  on  to  land,  if  it  can  be  pre- 
vented. An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure  in 
drainage. 

6.  Don't  think  it  takes  a  wizard  to  lay  tile  properly.  Have  a 
survey  made  sufficient  in  detail  to  show  that  there  is  sufficient  fall. 
An  intelligent  use  of  this  fall  will  then  insure  success. 

7.  Don't  install  a  part  of  a  drainage  system  to  which  the  re- 
mainder of  the  system  cannot  later  be  joined  with  advantage. 

8.  Don't  let  the  waste  banks  of  ditches  grow  up  to  weeds.  Get 
them  sodded,  and  make  them  both  valuable  and  attractive. 

9.  Don't  let  outlet  ditches  remain  idle  when  they  should  be 
working.      Have  surface  ditches  and  tile  to  keep  them  busy. 

10.  Don't  spend  a  dollar  for  small  ditches  or  tile  on  a  marsh  until 
an  outlet  is  assured. 

11.  Don't  fail  to  give  land  drainage  the  attention  and  thought  it 

deserves. 

"  Our  marshes  and  pot-holes  are  evils  that  tell : 
Where  corn  shocks  are  thickest  the  land  is  drained  well, 
But  justice  to  drainage  demands  first  of  all, 
That  we  should  drain  wisely,  or  not  drain  at  all." 

Road-drags 

Use  of  the  King  road-drag  (Chase). 

The  use  of  the  drag  is  more  satisfactory  if  the  road  has  first  been 
crowned  with  a  blade  grader,  but  whenever  this  is  not  convenient  and 
the  traffic  is  not  too  heavy,  the  road  maybe  gradually  brought  to  a  crown 
by  means  of  the  drag  (Fig.  19). 

The  surface  of  the  average  country  road  should  be  covered  in  one 
round  with  the  drag.  One  horse  should  be  driven  on  the  inside  of  the 
wheel  track  and  the  other  on  the  outside,  the  drag  being  set,  by  means 
of  the  chain,  so  that  it  is  running  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees 
with  the  wheel  track  and  working  the  earth  toward  the  center  of  the 
road.  In  the  spring,  when  the  roads  are  more  likely  to  be  rutty  and 
soft  it  is  generally  better  to  go  over  the  road  twice  and  in  some  places 
more  times. 


486      CONSTRUCTION,  FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 

The  drag  should  be  floored  with  boards  which  are  separated  by  open 
spaces  of  sufficient  width  so  that  the  dirt  which  falls  over  will  rattle 
through,  and  yet  they  should  be  close  enough  so  that  the  driver  can 
move  about  upon  the  drag  quite  freely. 

To  insure  the  successful  operation  of  the  drag,  it  is  necessary  for 
the  driver  to  use  careful  judgment.  Sometimes  it  is  essential  that  the 
blade  be  held  down  so  that  the  drag  will  cut  roots  and  weeds,  while  at 
other  times  the  front  edge  should  not  bear  too  heavily  upon  the  surface, 
as  it  will  dig  out  a  soft  place  which  would  be  better  if  left  undisturbed. 
This  regulation  of  the  cutting  edge  can  be  accomplished  by  the  driver 
moving  back  and  forth  or  to  the  right  and  left  on  the  drag. 

-6'X  6"-rr^:yl"^"^ 


12"  \\       ___— -ANy»' 


%^ 


■^,i^ -^^^         7,Q«2»^^  \     <^. 

Fig.  19.  —  Road  drag.     It  is  faced  part  of  the  length  on  the  front  with  a  steel  plate. 

If  the  road  is  to  be  crowned  with  the  drag,  it  is  often  well  to  plow 
a  light  furrow  along  the  sides  and  work  this  loosened  dirt  to  the  center. 

On  roads  with  heavy  traffic  the  drag  should  be  used  much  oftener 
and  with  more  care  than  on  roads  with  light  traffic. 

The  distance  from  the  drag  at  which  the  team  is  hitched  affects  the 
cutting.  A  long  hitch  permits  the  blade  to  cut  deeper  than  a  short 
hitch,  likewise  a  heavy  doubletree  will  cause  the  cutting  edge  to  settle 
deeper  than  a  light  one. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  heavier  the  traffic  over  a  properly  dragged 
road  the  better  the  road  becomes. 

When  to  use  (he  drag.  —  There  are  very  few  periods  of  the  year  when 
the  use  of  the  drag  does  not  benefit  the  road,  but  it  does  the  best  work 
when  the  soil  is  moist  and  yet  not  too  sticky.  This  is  frequently 
within  a  half-day's  time  after  a  rain.     When  the  earth  is  in  this  state 


ROAD-DRAGS  487 

it  works  the  best,  and  the  effects  of  working  it  are  fully  as  beneficial 
as  at  any  other  time.  The  Nebraska  soils,  when  mixed  with  water 
and  thoroughly  worked  become  remarkably  tough  and  impervious  to 
rain,  and  if  compacted  in  this  condition  they  become  extremely  hard. 

This  action  of  the  soil  in  becoming  so  hard  and  smooth  not  only 
helps  to  shed  the  water  during  a  rain,  but  also  greatly  retards  the  for- 
mation of  dust. 

Whal  may  he  expected  from  the  use  of  the  drag.  —  It  often  takes  a 
whole  season  for  the  road  to  become  properly  puddled  and  baked  to 
withstand  the  rains  and  traffic.  After  a  road  has  been  worked  with 
a  drag  only  a  short  time,  it  is  not  well  to  expect  it  to  stand  up  to 
heavy  traffic  during  a  continued  damp  spell  without  being  affected. 
However,  it  will  take  far  heavier  traffic  than  most  earth  roads  receive 
to  more  than  scuff  up  the  surface. 

It  is  not  well  to  consider  the  benefits  from  a  good  road  as  solely  con- 
fined to  heavy  traffic,  for  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  time  saved  to 
light  vehicles  and  the  greater  pleasure  derived  from  their  use  over  good 
roads  far  surpasses  the  economy  in  heavy  hauling. 

While  driving  over  a  well-crowned-smooth  road,  the  team  does  not 
have  to  follow  the  usual  rut,  no  slacking  has  to  be  made  for  irregular- 
ities in  the  surface,  and  it  matters  not  whether  one  or  two  horses  are 
being  driven. 

The  split-log  road-drag  (D.  W.  King). 

Two  mistakes  are  commonly  made  in  constructing  a  split-log  drag. 
The  first  lies  in  making  it  too  heavy.  It  should  be  so  light  that  one 
man  can  easily  lift  it  (Fig.  20). 

The  other  mistake  is  in  the  use  of  squared  timbers,  instead  of  those 
with  sharp  edges,  whereby  the  cutting  effect  of  sharp  edges  is  lost  and 
the  drag  is  permitted  to  glide  over  instead  of  to  equalize  the  irregular- 
ities in  the  surface  of  the  road.  These  mistakes  are  due  partly  to 
badly  drawn  illustrations  and  plans  of  drags  which  have  occasionally 
appeared  in  newspapers,  and  partly  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  it  is 
necessary  that  a  large  amount  of  earth  shall  be  moved  at  one  time. 

A  dry  red  cedar  log  is  the  best  material  for  a  drag.  Red  elm  and 
walnut  when  thoroughly  dried  are  excellent,  and  box  elder,  soft  maple, 
or  even  willow  are  preferable  to  oak,  hickory,  or  ash. 

The  log  should  be  seven  or  eight  feet  long  and  from  ten  to  twelve 


488      CONSTIH  ("noN,    farm    KNUINKKHINU,    MKCllANWS 

inches  in  diamotcr,  :iimI  ciircfully  split  down  tlic  middle.  The  hciivioHt 
and  b(\st  slal)  should  be  .sclcc^tccl  for  the;  front.  At  a  point  on  this  front 
sUib  4  in(;h(!S  from  tlu;  (!nd  that  is  to  Ik;  at  the  niiddh;  of  the;  road 
locate  the  center  of  the?  hole  to  reccnvc;  a  cross  stake,  and  22  inches 
from  the  other  end  of  the  front  slab  locate  the  center  for  another 
cross  stake.  The  liolc  for  the  niiddh;  stake  will  lie  on  a  line  connectinj; 
and  halfway  Ix'twccn  the  other  two.  The  ba(rk  slab  should  now  b(; 
placed   in  position    beliind  the  other.     From  the  end  which  is  to  be 


Fio.  20.  — The  Hplit-log  romJ-diiiK. 

at  the  middle  of  tlie  road  measure  20  inches  for  the  center  of  the 
cross  stake,  and  6  inches  from  the  other  end  locate  the  center  of  the 
outside;  stake.  Find  th(;  cent(;r  of  th(;  middle;  hole  as  b(;fore.  When 
these;  holes  an;  brought  opposite;  e'jie;h  e>the;r,  e)ne;  e;nel  of  the  l)ae;k  slul) 
will  lie  If)  ine;he;s  nearer  the  center  of  the  roadway  than  the  front 
one,  giving  what  is  known  as  "se;t  bae-k."  The;  holes  she)ulel  be;  2  ine;iie'S 
in  diameter.  Care  must  be  taken  te)  hold  the  auger  pluml)  in  be)rinf^ 
th(;se;  he)le;s  in  oreleT  that  tlie'  stake;s  shall  fit  pr()|)e'rly.  The-  lie)le  te>  re- 
ceive the;  fe>rwarei  e;nel  e>f  the  chain  she)uld  be*  be)re;el  at  the;  same'  time. 

The  two  slabs  should  be  held  30  inche;s  apart  by  the  stakes. 
Straight-graine;el  timber  shoulel  be  se;le;cte;d  for  the  stakes,  so  that  each 
stake  shall  fit  snuf^ly  inte)  the  twe)-inch  hole  when  the;  two  slabs  are  in 
the  prope;r  i)e)sitiem.  The'  stake-s  she)uld  taper  graehially  te)warel  the 
ends.  There;  she)ulel  be  no  she)ulele'r  at  the'  point  where  the;  stake;s  e;nter 
the  slab.     The  stakes  should  be  fastened  in  place  by  wedges  only. 

When  the  stakes  have  been  placed  in  position  and  tightly  wedged, 


ROAD-DRAGS.       WATER   FIGURES 


489 


a  brace  two  inches  thick  and  four  inches  wide  should  be  placed  diagon- 
ally to  thorn  at  the  ditch  end.  The  brace  should  be  dropped  on  the 
front  slab,  so  that  its  lower  edge  shall  lie  within  an  inch  of  the  ground, 
while  the  other  end  should  rest  in  the  angle  Vjetween  the  slab  and  the 
end  stake. 

A  strip  of  iron  about  3^  feet  long,  3  or  4  inches  wide,  and  \  of 
an  inch  thick  nriay  be  used  for  the  blade.  This  should  be  attached  to 
the  front  slab,  so  that  it  will  be  \  inch  below  the  lower  edge  of  the 
slab  at  the  ditcli  end,  while  the  end  of  the  iron  toward  the  middle  of 
the  road  should  be  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  slab.  The  bolts  holding 
the  blade  in  place  should  have  flat  heads,  and  the  holes  to  receive  them 
iihould  be  countersunk. 

If  the  face  of  the  log  stands  plumb,  it  is  well  to  wedge  out  the  lower 
edge  of  the  blade  with  a  three-cornered  strip  of  wood  to  give  it  a  set 
like  the  bit  of  a  plane. 

A  platform  of  inch  boards  held  together  by  three  cleats  should  be 
plac(;d  on  the  stakes  betwe(.'n  the  slabs.  These  boards  should  be 
spaced  at  least  an  inch  aparf.  to  allow  any  earth  that  may  heap  up  and 
fall  over  the  front  slab  to  sift  through  upon  the  road  again. 


Data  on  Water 


1  U.S.  j?allon 
1  U.S.  gallon 

1  cu.  ft.  wator 
1  cu.  ft.  water 


2.31  cu,  in. 
8i  lb. 

62.5  lb. 
7.48  j?al. 


Feet-head  of  water,  and  equivalent  pressure 


Feet- 
Head 

Pound* 
PEH  Sq.  In. 

Feet-Head 

Pounds 
PEB  Sq.  In. 

Feet-Head 

Pounds 
PER  Sci.  In. 

1 

.43 

60 

25.99 

200 

86.62 

2 

.87 

70 

30.32 

225 

97.45 

3 

1.30 

80 

34.65 

250 

108.27 

4 

1.73 

90 

38.98 

275 

110.10 

5 

2.17 

100 

43.31 

300 

120.03 

6 

2.60 

110 

47.64 

325 

140.75 

7 

3.03 

120 

51.07 

350 

151.58 

8 

3.40 

1.30 

56.30 

400 

173.24 

9 

3.90 

140 

60.63 

500 

216.55 

10 

4.33 

150 

64.96 

600 

259.85 

20 

8.66 

160 

69.29 

700 

303.16 

.30 

12.00 

170 

73.63 

800 

346.47 

40 

17.32 

180 

77.96 

900 

389.78 

50 

21.65 

190 

82.29 

1000 

433.09 

490      CONSTRUCTlONy   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 


Pressure  arid  equivalent  feet-head  of  water 


Pounds 
perSq.In. 

Feet-Head 

Pounds 
PER  Sq.  In. 

Feet-Head 

Pounds 
PEK  Sq.  In. 

Feet-Head 

1 

2.31 

40 

92.36 

170 

392.52 

2 

4.62 

50 

115.45 

180 

415.61 

3 

6.93 

60 

138.54 

190 

438.90 

4 

9.24 

70 

161.63 

200 

461.78 

6 

11.54 

80 

184.72 

225 

519.51 

6 

13.85 

90 

207.81 

250 

577.24 

7 

16.16 

100 

230.90 

275 

643.03 

8 

18.47 

110 

253.98 

300 

692.69 

9 

20.78 

120 

277.07 

325 

750.41 

10 

23.09 

125 

288.62 

350 

808.13 

15 

34.63 

130 

300.16 

375 

865.89 

20 

46.18 

140 

323.25 

400 

922.58 

25 

57.72 

150 

346.34 

500 

1154.48 

30 

69.27 

160 

369.43 

1000 

2308.00 

Table  of  equivalents  for  moving  water 


42-Gallon  Barrel 

Gallons 

Inches  of 
9  Gal.  per 

PER 

PER  Minute 

PER  Hour 

Minute 

Minute 

Bbls.  per 
Minute 

Bbls.  per 
Hour 

Bbls.  24 
Hours 

10 

1.11 

1.3368 

600 

.24 

14.28 

342.8 

20 

2.22 

2.6733 

1,200 

.48 

28.57 

685.7 

25 

2.66 

3.342 

1,500 

.59 

35.71 

857.0 

27 

3.0 

3.609 

1.620 

.64 

38.57 

925.0 

35 

3.88 

4.678 

2.100 

.83 

50.0 

1,200.0 

36 

4.0 

4.812 

2,100 

.86 

51.43 

1,234.0 

40 

4.4 

5.348 

2,400 

.95 

57.14 

1,371.0 

45 

5.0 

6.015 

2,700 

1.07 

64.28 

1,543.0 

75 

8.33 

10.026 

4,.500 

1.78 

107.14 

2,581.0 

80 

8.88 

10.694 

4,800 

1.90 

114.28 

2,742.0 

90 

10.0 

12.031 

5,400 

2.14 

128.5 

3,0S5.0 

100 

11.1 

13.368 

6,000 

2.39 

142.8 

3,428.0 

125 

13.8 

16.710 

7,500 

2.98 

178.6 

4,286.0 

150 

16.6 

20.052 

9,000 

3.57 

214.3 

5,14:^.0 

175 

19.4 

23.394 

10.. 500 

4.16 

250.0 

6,0( )().() 

180 

20.0 

24.062 

10,800 

4.28 

257.0 

6,171.0 

225 

25.0 

30.079 

18,. 500 

5.35 

321.4 

7,714.0 

250 

26.7 

33.421 

15,000 

5.95 

357.1 

8,570.0 

270 

30.0 

36.093 

16.200 

6.33 

385.7 

9,257.0 

360 

40.0 

48.125 

21.600 

8.57 

514.3 

12,342.0 

400 

44.4 

53.472 

24,000 

9.52 

571.8 

13.723.0 

450 

50.0 

60.158 

27.000 

10.7 

642.8 

15,428.0 

WATER   FIGURES 


491 


Table  of  equivalents  for  moving  water  —  Continued 


Gallons 

Miner's 
Inches  of 
9  Gal.  per 

Cubic  Feet 
per  Minute 

42-Gallon  Barrel 

PER 

PER  Hour 

Minute 

Minute 

BbLS.   PER 

Minute 

Bbls.  per 
Hour 

Bbls.  24 
Hours 

500 

55.5 

66.842 

30,000 

11.9 

714.3 

17,143.0 

540 

GO.O 

72.186 

32,400 

12.8 

771.3 

18,512.0 

600 

66.0 

80.208 

36,000 

14.3 

857.1 

20,570.0 

630 

70.0 

84.218 

37,800 

15.0 

900.0 

21,600.0 

675 

75.0 

90.234 

40,500 

16.0 

964.0 

23,143.0 

720 

80.0 

96.25 

43,200 

17.0 

1028.0 

24,685.0 

800 

88.8 

106.94 

48,000 

19.05 

1142.0 

27,387.0 

900 

100.0 

120.31 

54,000 

21.43 

1285.0 

30,857.0 

1000 

111.1 

133.68 

60,000 

23.95 

1428.0 

34,284.0 

1350 

150.0 

180.46 

81,000 

32.14 

1928.0 

46,085.0 

1500 

166.0 

200.52 

90,000 

35.71 

2142.0 

51,427.0 

1800 

200.0 

240.62 

108,000 

42.85 

2571.0 

57,713.0 

2000 

222.0 

267.36 

120,000 

47.64 

2857.0 

68,568.0 

2500 

266.0 

334.21 

150,000 

59.52 

3571.0 

85,704.0 

2700 

300.0 

360.93 

162,000 

63.33 

3857.0 

92,572.0 

3000 

333.0 

401.04 

180,000 

71.43 

4285.0 

102,840.0 

Foot-loss  by  friction  of  water  through  pipes,  by  gravity  (Ogden) 

The  spring  or  other  source  used  for  a  water-supply  would  have  to  be 
as  much  higher  than  the  highest  fixture  is  as  shown  in  the  table,  in 
order  to  provide  the  pressure  required  to  overcome  the  friction  in  the 
pipe.  The  table  shows  the  force  required  to  keep  the  water  moving 
through  a  small  pipe,  expressed  in  number  of  feet  of  head,  when  the 
water  flows  by  its  own  weight  and  is  not  forced  by  a  pump  :  — 


Head  in  Feet  lost  by  Friction  in  Each  100  F»et 

Flow  in  Gallons  per 

OF  Length 

Minute 

y2-inch  pipe 

1-inch  pipe 

0.5 

4 

1.0 

7 

0.3 

2.0 

17 

0.7 

4.0 

54 

1.6 

7.0 

140 

5.3 

10.0 

224 

9.3 

492      CONSTRUCTION,    FARM  ENaiNEERING,   MECHANICS 

Friction-loss  in  pounds  of  water  in  pipes 

Pounds  pressure  per  square  inch  for  each  100  feet  of  length  in  different 
size  clean  iron  pipe,  discharging  given  quantities  water  per  minute. 


Gal- 

Sizes 

OF  Pipe 

—  Inside  Diameter 

lons 

PER 

Min- 
ute 

|in. 

1  in. 

liin. 

IJin. 

2  in. 

3  in. 

4  in. 

6  in. 

Sin. 

10  in. 

12  in. 

5 

3.3 

0.84 

0.31 

0.12 

0.03 

10 

13.0 

3.16 

1.05 

0.47 

0.12 

15 

28.7 

6.98 

2.38 

0.97 

0.27 

20 

50.4 

12.3 

4.07 

1.66 

0.42 

0.03 

25 

78.0 

19.0 

6.40 

2.62 

0.67 

0.10 

30 

27.5 

9.15 

3.75 

0.91 

0.12 

0.03 

35 

37.0 

12.4 

5.05 

1.26 

0.14 

0.05 

40 

48.0 

16.1 

6.52 

1.60 

0.17 

0.06 

45 



20.2 

8.15 

2.01 

0.27 

0.07 

50 

24.9 

10.0 

2.44 

0.35 

0.09 

75 

56.1 

22.4 

5.32 

0.74 

0.21 

0.03 

100 

39.0 

9.46 

1.31 

0.33 

0.05 

125 



14.9 

1.99 

0.51 

0.07 

150 

21.2 

2.85 

0.69 

0.10 

0.02 

175 

28.1 

3.85 

0.95 

0.14 

0.03 



200 

37.5 

5.02 

1.22 

0.17 

0.05 

0.01 

250 

7.76 

1.89 

0.26 

0.07 

0.03 

0.01 

300 

11.2 

2.66 

0.37 

0.09 

0.04 

Gal- 
lons 

3  in. 

4  in. 

Sin. 

6  in. 

7  in. 

10  in. 

12  in. 

16  in. 

20  in. 

24  in. 

30  in. 

350 

400 

450 

500 

600 

750 

1000 

1250 

1500 

1750 

2000 

2500 

3000 

3500 

4000 

4500 

5000 

15.2 
19.5 
25.0 
30.8 

3.65 
4.73 
6.01 
7.43 
10.6 

1.28 
1.68 
2.10 
2.70 
3.45 
5.40 
9.60 

0.50 
0.65 
0.81 
0.96 
1.72 
2.21 
3.88 

0.25 
0.32 
0.42 
0.49 
0.86 
1.11 
1.91 

0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.09 
0.13 
0.18 
0.32 
0.49 
0.70 
0.95 
1.23 

0.02 

0.03 
0.04 
0.05 
0.08 
0.13 
0.20 
0.29 
0.38 
0.49 
0.77 
1.11 

0.009 

0.036 

0.71 

0.123 

0.188 

0.267 

0.365 

0.47 

0.593 

0.73 

0.09 

0.124 

0.158 

0.20 

0.244 

0.067 

0.08 

0.102 

0.022 
0.027 
0.035 

WATER   FIGURES 


493 


Friction-head  in  feet  in  clean  wrought-iron  pipe  for  each  100  feet  of  length 
when  discharging  various  quantities  of  water  from  a  windynill  (Fuller) 

If  the  water  is  to  be  carried  some  distance  fom  the  pump  to  a  res- 
ervoir in  the  use  of  windmills  in  irrigation,  then  the  pipe-line  convey- 
ing the  water  to  the  reservoir  will  offer  friction  to  the  flow,  and  this 
friction  expressed  in  feet  should  be  added  in  determining  the  total 
head  against  which  the  pump  must  operate. 


Friction-head  in  Pipe,  with  Diameter  of  — 

Size 
of 

Gal- 
lons 

PER 

Min- 
ute 

fin. 

lin. 

IJin. 

Uin. 

2  in. 

2^  in. 

3  in. 

4  in. 

5  in. 

6  in. 

7  in. 

Sin. 

10 
in. 

12 
in. 

Pipe 
to  use 
for 
Eco- 
nomi- 
cal 
Dis- 
tribu- 
tion 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
75 
100 
125 
150 
175 
200 
250 
300 

Feel 

7.60 

29.95 

66.12 

116.12 

179.71 

Feet 

1.93 
7.28 
16.08 
28.33 
43.77 
63.36 
85.24 
110.59 

Feet 

0.71 

2.42 

5.48 

9.37 

14.74 

21.08 

28.56 

37.09 

46.54 

57.37 

129.25 

Feet 

0.27 

1.08 

2.23 

3.82 

6.03 

8.64 

11.63 

15.02 

18.77 

23.04 

51.61 

89.85 

Feet 

0.07 

0.28 

0.62 

0.97 

1.53 

2.09 

2.90 

3.68 

4.63 

5.62 

12.25 

21.79 

34.33 

48.84 

64.74 

86.40 

Feet 

0.07 

0.14 

0.30 

0.48 

0.69 

0.96 

1.17 

1.42 

1.86 

4.14 

7.37 

11.26 

19.12 

21.76 

28.73 

i5.29 

64.65 

Feu 

0.07 
0.23 
0.28 
0.32 
0.39 
0.62 
0.80 
1.70 
3.01 
4.58 
6.56 
8.87 
11.56 
17.87 
25.80 

Feet 

0.07 
0.11 
0.13 
0.16 
0.20 
0.48 
0.76 
1.17 
1.58 
2.18 
2.80 
4. .34 
6.12 

Feet 

0.07 
0.13 
0.27 
0.39 
0.57 
0.78 
0.97 
1.49 
2.13 

Feet 

0.07 
0.11 
0.16 
0.23 
0.32 
0.39 
0.60 
0.85 

Feet 

0.07 
0.18 
0.30 
0.41 

Feet 

0.05 
0.07 
0.11 
0.16 
0.20 

Feet 

0.02 
0.07 
0.09 

Feet 

z 

0.02 

Inches 

1.5 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.0 
5.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

Suppose,  it  is  desired  to  deliver  60  gallons  of  water  per  minute 
through  a  pipe-line  100  feet  long.  The  table  shows  that  a  3-inch 
line  delivers  50  gallons  per  minute  at  a  loss  of  0.8  foot  head,  and  a 
4-inch  line  75  gallons  per  minute  mth  0.48-foot  loss.  The  size 
desired  is  therefore  between  3  and  4  inches,  and  as  no  intermediate 
size  is  made  in  wrought-iron  pipe,  the  4-inch  pipe  is  best,  and  the 
total  head  to  pump  against  would  be  25  +  3  +  0.48,  or  a  total  o' 
28.48  feet. 


494      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 

Barometric  pressure  at  different  altitudes,  as  affecting  pumps 
With  equivalent  head  of  water  and  the  vertical  suction  lift  of  pumps 


Altitude 


Sea  level      .     . 
imile,  1,320  ft. 
imile,  2,640  ft. 
fmile,  3,960  ft. 

1  mile,  5,280  ft. 
li  mile,  6.600  ft. 
l^mile,  7,920  ft. 

2  miles,  10,560  ft, 


Barometric 
Pressure 


14.70 
14.02 
13.33 
12.66 
12.02 
11.42 
10.88 
9.88 


Equivalent 
Head  of 
Water 


33.95 
32.38 
30.79 
29.24 
27.76 
26.38 
25.13 
22.82 


Practical 

Suction  Lift 

OF  Pumps 


25 
24 
22 
21 
20 
19 
18 
16 


Windmill  Figures 

Windmills  for  pumping  (Rayner). 

Windmills  vary  in  type  and  efficiency  from  a  four-arm  direct-con- 
nected paddle  wheel,  erected  on  a  single  post,  to  the  modern  curved 
blade,  back-geared,  steel  windmill,  erected  on  a  scientifically  con- 
structed steel  tower. 

To  select  a  proper-sized  windmill  for  the  purpose  required,  the  speed 
of  the  wind  in  the  particular  locality  should  be  considered.  In  the 
United  States,  this  information  can  be  readily  secured  from  the  nearest 
weather  bureau  station.  When  the  average  speed  is  above  eight 
miles  per  hour,  throughout  the  year,  the  following  table  may  be  fol- 
lowed safely  :  — 

Lift  (ft.) 

8-ft.  diameter  windmill 3     -inch  diameter  pump,    40 

8-ft.  diameter  windmill 2i^-inch  diameter  pump,    70 

10-ft.  diameter  windmill 3     -inch  diameter  pump,    70 

10-ft.  diameter  windmill 2J^-inch  diameter  pump,  120 

12-ft.  diameter  windmill 3     -inch  diameter  pump,  100 

12-ft.  fiiameter  windmill 2J/^-inch  diameter  pump,  180 

12-ft.  diameter  windmill 2*^ -inch  diameter  pump,  200 

12-ft.  diameter  windmill 2    -inch  diameter  pump,  300 

When  the  average  speed  of  the  wind  is  less  than  given  above,  a  pro- 
portionally larger  diameter  windmill  should  be  chosen. 

In  the  lift  that  is  required  of  the  pump,  the  elevation  above  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  the  elevated  tank  or  cistern  should  be  added  to 
the  depth  of  the  well. 


^       o 


496 


WINDMILLS 


497 


Loading  and  speed  of  14-foot  power  windmill  when  developing  its  maximum 

power  (Fuller) 


Wind  Velocity  — 
Miles  per  Hour 

Horse-power 

Speed  of  Wheel  — 

Revolutions  per 

Minute 

Load  in  Pounds 
PER  Stroke 

0-5 

6-10 

11-15     

16-20     

21-25     

26-30     

31-35     

0.01 
0.27 
0.85 
1.80 
3.45 
4.82 
5.60 

2.0 
20.0 
29.5 
38.0 
45.0 
51.0 
55.0 

4.35 
10.35 
14.20 
26.35 
29.20 
31.00 

Sizes  of  circular  reservoirs  and  estimated  cost  for  various  areas  of  land  to  be 
irrigated  from  windmills  (Fuller) 

The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions  of  circular  reservoirs  of 
different  capacities  ;  the  quantities  of  earth  in  the  embankments,  if 
these  have  inside  slopes  of  three  to  one  and  outside  slopes  of  one  to 
one  ;  the  areas  which  can  be  irrigated,  provided  the  reservoir  full  of 
water  is  used  once  in  ten  days  throughout  five  months  and  the  land 
receives  water  to  a  depth  of  one  foot  ;  the  sizes  of  mills  recommended, 
and  the  costs  of  reservoirs  and  mills.  The  lift  assumed  in  choosing  the 
mills  is  14  feet :  — 


>> 

I'L 

lol 

fa 

o'o 

Ml 
III 

III 

if 

a 

111 

u 

III 

Estimated 
Cost  of  Plant 
Erected  and 
Completed  i 

1 

« 

0.07 

4 

21.30 

45.30 

19 

3 

212.00 

1    8-foot 

$21.20 

$81 

1 

0.16 

4 

34.96 

58.96 

19 

3 

281.52 

1    8-foot 

28.15 

88 

2 

0.24 

4 

45.62 

69.62 

19 

3 

336.25 

1  10-foot 

33.62 

113 

3 

0.32 

4 

54.61 

78.61 

19 

3 

381.88 

1  10-foot 

38.18 

119 

4 

0.40 

4 

62.27 

86.27 

19 

3 

422.46 

1  12-foot 

42.24 

202 

5 

0.49 

5 

58.58 

88.58 

24 

4 

684.71 

2  10-foot 

68.47 

228 

6 

0.56 

5 

63.64 

93.64 

24 

4 

725.80 

2  12-foot 

72.58 

392 

7 

0.63 

5 

69.00 

99.00 

24 

4 

747.75 

3  12-foot 

74.77 

550 

8 

0.72 

5 

74.37 

104.37 

24 

4 

813.51 

3  12-foot 

81.35 

561 

9 

0.80 

5 

79.36 

109.36 

24 

4 

854.16 

3  12-foot 

85.41 

565 

10 

1  Not  including  well. 


2k 


498      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 

Average  cost  of  windmills  of  different  sizes,  and  areas  irrigated  by  them  in 
Colorado  (Fuller) 


Number  of 

Mills 

Size 

OF  Mills 

Average  Cost 

Average  Area 

18 

8 
10 
12 
14 
16 

$102 
198 
195 
265 

188 

0.7 

12 

1.8 

9 

2.4 

8 

3.8 

2         ... 

3.6 

Machinery  and  Motors 

Rules  for  widths  of  belting 

d  =  diameter  of  either  driving  or  driven  pulley  in  inches. 
n  =  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  pulley  considered. 
Wi  =  width  in  inches  of  single  leather  belting  or  of  4-ply  canvas  or  4-ply 

rubber  belting. 
tf>s  =  width  in  inches  of  5-ply  canvas  or  of  5-ply  rubber  belting. 
Wq  =  width  in  inches  of  double  leather  belting  or  6-ply  canvas  or  6-ply  rubber 
belting. 
H.P.  =  Horse-power  to  be  transmitted  by  belt. 

Rule:— u'4  =  3000^^ 
an 

Rules  for  determining  size  and  speed  of  pulleys  or  gears 

The  driving  pulley  is  called  the  Driver,  and  the  driven  pulley  the  Driven. 
To  determine  the  diameter  of  Driver,  the  diameter  of  the  Driven  and  its 
revolutions,  and  also  revolutions  of  Driver,  being  given. 
Diam.  of  Driven  X  revolutions  of  Driven 


Revolutions  of  Driver 


Diam.  of  Driver. 


To  determine  the  diameter  of  Driven,  the  revolutions  of  the  Driven  and  diam- 
eter and  revolutions  of  the  Driver  being  given. 

Diam.  of  Driver  X  revolutions  of  Driver 


Revolutions  of  Driven 


Diam.  of  Driven. 


To  determine  the  revolutions  of  the  Driver,  the  diameter  and  revolutions  of 
the  Driven  and  diameter  of  the  Driver  being  given. 

Diam.  of  Driven  X  revolutions  of  Driven        t^  e  t^  • 

r  ^ ,-^- =  Rev.  of  Driver. 

Diameter  of  Driver 

To  determine  the  revolutions  of  the  Driven,  the  diameter  and  revolutions  of 
the  Driver,  and  diameter  of  the  Driven  being  given. 
Diam.  of  Driver  X  revolutions  of  Driver 
Diameter  of  Driven 


=  Rev.  of  Driven. 


If  the  number  of  teeth  in  gears  is  used  instead  of  diameter,  in  these  calcula- 
tions, number  of  teeth  must  be  substituted  wherever  diameter  occurs. 


PUMP   FIGURES 


499 


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500      CONSTRUCTION,  FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 


Table  of  power  required  to  operate  high-grade  triplex  pumps 

The  estimates  given  in  the  table  are  made  with  a  liberal  allowance  of  power. 
The  power  for  other  capacities  and  heights  is.  approximately,  in  proportion  to 
that  tabulated.  By  "  head  "  is  meant  the  vertical  distance  from  surface  of  water 
supply  to  point  of  delivery.  One  foot  head  is  equivalent  to  .43  pound  pressure. 
The  head  is  increased  by  the  friction  of  the  water  in  pipes  and  elbows. 


General  service  pumps 


Diameter  AND 
Stroke  of 

Usual 
Capacity 

PER  Minute 

50  Feet 
Head  or 

100  Feet 
Head  or 

150  Feet 
Head  or 

2.50  Feet 
Head  or 

350  Feet 
or  Head 

21  Pounds 

43  Pounds 

65  Pounds 

108  Pounds 

150 Pounds 

Pdmp 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

in. 

gal. 

h.  p. 

h.p. 

h.p. 

h.p. 

h.p. 

1J4  X    2 

1.8 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

m   X    2H 

4.2 

0.50 

0.50 

0.65 

0.85 

1.12 

2X3 

6.0 

0.50 

0.50 

0.70 

1.05 

1.33 

2H  X    4 

12.0 

0.60 

1.0 

1.36 

1.85 

2.33 

3X4 

18.0 

0.75 

1.1 

1.6 

2.5 

3.15 

3H  X    4 

25.0 

0.83 

1.3 

1.8 

2.7 

3.25 

4X4 

32.0 

1.2 

1.5 

2.0 

3.0 

4.0 

4X6 

^.0 

1.9 

2.5 

3.1 

4.8 

6.25 

5       V'' 

75.0 

2.0 

3.5 

4.0 

6.25 

8.75 

a 

5X8 

90.0 

2.5 

4.0 

5.0 

7.5 

10.5 

o 

5^  X    8 

110.0 

3.0 

4.5 

6.0 

9.7 

12.5 

<  . 

6X8 

132.0 

3.6 

4.5 

7.0 

11.0 

15.5 

6       X  10 

154.0 

4.05 

6.0 

8.0 

12.75 

17.8 

a 

6H  X    8 

153.0 

4.25 

6.0 

8.0 

12.75 

17.8 

tc 

7X8 

180.0 

5.0 

7.0 

9.5 

15.0 

21.0 

7       X  10 

209.0 

5.25 

7.8 

10.75 

17.25 

23.33 

8X8 

234.0 

5.85 

9.0 

12.0 

19.5 

25.5 

8       X  10 

273.0 

7.0 

10.5 

15.0 

22.75 

30.0 

8       X  12 

312.0 

8.25 

12.0 

17.0 

26.0 

34.0 

9       X  10 

344.0 

8.50 

13.0 

18.0 

28.0 

37.5 

10       X  10 

428.0 

10.6 

16.2 

22.5 

35.0 

46.8 

11       X  10 

516.0 

12.7 

19.5 

27.0 

42.0 

56.2 

12       X  10 

617.0 

15.3 

23.4 

32.4 

50.4 

67.5 

8H  X  12 

352.0 

8.5 

14.0 

19.0 

28.0 

38.0 

^9       X  12 

396.0 

9.5 

15.6 

21.3 

31.3 

42.5 

f    4       X    6 

94.0 

2.4 

3.9 

5.2 

7.5 

10.1 

4H  X    8 

140.0 

3.5 

5.9 

7.8 

11.2 

15.2 

5X8 

175.0 

4.4 

7.3 

9.75 

14.0 

19.0 

5H  X    8 

211.0 

5.3 

8.8 

11.7 

17.0 

22.8 

.S 

6X8 

252.0 

5.75 

10.2 

13.5 

20.0 

27.0 

< 

6H  X    8 

297.0 

6.75 

12.0 

16.0 

23.5 

31.7 

^ 

7X8 

346.0 

8.5 

13.0 

18.0 

28.0 

37.0 

3 

7       X  10 

411.0 

9.35 

15.7 

21.5 

32.5 

44.0 

1 

8       X  10 

533.0 

12.0 

20.0 

28.5 

42.0 

58.0 

8       X  12 

612.0 

14.0 

24.0 

33.0 

50.0 

68.0 

8H  X  12 

684.0 

15.7 

26.5 

36.7 

55.0 

75.0 

9       X  12 

776.0 

18.0 

29.8 

40.0 

62.0 

84.0 

10       X  12 

952.0 

21.6 

36.6 

50.0 

76.0 

103.0 

PUMP  AND   SHAFTING   FIGURES 


501 


Table  of  theoretical  horse-power  required  to  raise  water  to  different  heights 

Allowance  should  be  made  for  friction;  for  ordinary  pumps,  allow  twice  the  power  given 
in  table. 


Feet 

5 

10 

30 

35 

30 

45 

60 

75 

100 

135 

150 

175 

350 

40fl 

Gals 
per 
mm. 

5 

006 

0.012 

0  025 

0,031 

0.037 

0.06 

0.07 

0.09 

0.12 

0.16 

0.19 

0.22 

0.44 

0.50 

in 

012 

0.025 

0.050 

0.062 

0.075 

0.11 

0.15 

0.19 

0.25 

0.31 

0.37 

0.44 

0.87 

l.OU 

15 

,019 

0,037 

0.075 

0.094 

0.112 

0.17 

0.22 

0.28 

0.37 

0.47 

0.56 

0.66 

1.31 

1.50 

20 

025 

0.050 

0.100 

0,125 

0,150 

0.22 

0.30 

0.37 

0.50 

0.62 

0.75 

0.87 

1.75 

2.00 

25 

.031 

0.062 

0.125 

0.156 

0.187 

0.28 

0.37 

0.47 

0.62 

0.78 

0.94 

1.09 

2.19 

2.50 

30 

.037 

0.075 

0.150 

0.187 

0.225 

0.34 

0.45 

0.56 

0.75 

0.94 

1.12 

1.31 

2.62 

3.00 

35 

,043 

0.087 

0.175 

0.219 

0.262 

0.39 

0.52 

0.66 

0.87 

1.08 

1.31 

1.53 

3.06 

3.50 

40 

.050 

0.100 

0.200 

0.250 

0.300 

0.45 

0.60 

0.75 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

3.50 

4.00 

45 

.056 

0.112 

0.225 

0.281 

0.337 

0.51 

0.67 

0.84 

1.12 

1.41 

1.69 

1.97 

3.94 

4.50 

50 

.062 

0.125 

0.250 

0.312 

0.375 

0.56 

0.75 

0.94 

1.25 

1.56 

1.87 

2.19 

4.37 

6.00 

60 

.075 

0.150 

0.300 

0.375 

0.450 

0.67 

0.90 

1.12 

1.50 

1.87 

2.25 

2.62 

5.25 

6.00 

75 

093 

0.187 

0.375 

0.469 

0.562 

0,84 

1.12 

1.40 

1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

6.56 

7.50 

90 

112 

0.225 

0.450 

0,562 

0,675 

1.01 

1 .35 

1.68 

2.25 

2.81 

3.37 

3.94 

7.87 

9.00 

100 

.125 

0.250 

0.500 

0.625 

0.750 

1.12 

1.50 

1.87 

2.50 

3.12 

3.75 

4.37 

8.75 

10.00 

125 

.156 

0.312 

0.625 

0.781 

0.937 

1.41 

1.87 

2.34 

3.12 

3.91 

4.69 

5.47 

10.94 

12.50 

150 

.187 

0.375 

0.750 

0.937 

1.125 

1.69 

2.25 

2.81 

3.75 

4.69 

5.62 

6.56 

13.12 

15.00 

175 

.219 

0,4.37 

0.875 

1 .093 

1.312 

1.97 

2.62 

3.28 

4.37 

5.47 

6.56 

7.66 

15.31 

17.50 

200 

.250 

0.500 

1.000 

1.250 

1.500 

2.25 

3.00 

3.75 

5.00 

6.25 

7.50 

8.75 

17.50 

20.00 

250 

.312 

0.625 

1.250 

1.562 

1.875 

2.81 

3.75 

4.69 

6.25 

7.81 

9.37 

10.94 

21.87 

25.00 

300 

.375 

0.750 

1.500 

1.875 

2.250 

3.37 

4.50 

5.62 

7.50 

9.37 

11.25 

13.12 

26.25 

30.00 

350 

.437 

0.875 

1.750 

2.187 

2.625 

3,94 

5.25 

6.56 

8.75 

10.94 

13.12 

15.31 

30.62 

35.00 

400 

.500 

1.000 

2.000 

2.500 

3.000 

4.50 

6.00 

7.50 

10.00 

12.50 

15.00 

17.50 

35.00 

40.00 

500 

.625 

1.250 

2.500 

3.125 

3.750 

5.62 

7.50 

9.37 

12.50 

15.62 

18.75  121.87 

43.75 

50.00 

Horse-power  of  steel  shafting 
For  line-shaft  service 


Shaft 

Revolutions 

PER  Minute 

Sizes 
In. 

100 

135 

150 

175 

300 

335 

350 

300 

350 

400 

Un 

2.4 

3.1 

3.7 

4.3 

4.9 

5.5 

6.1 

7.3 

8.5 

9.7 

1/r 

4.3 

5.3 

6.4 

7.4 

8.5 

9.5 

10.5 

12.7 

14.8 

16.9 

Uh 

6.7 

8.4 

10.1 

11.7 

13.4 

15.1 

16.7 

20.1 

23.4 

26.8 

m 

10.0 

12.5 

15.0 

17.5 

20.0 

22.5 

25.0 

30.0 

35.0 

40.0 

2y% 

14.3 

17.8 

21.4 

24.9 

28.5 

32.1 

35.6 

42.7 

49.8 

57.0 

2/b 

19.5 

24.4 

29.3 

34.1 

39.0 

44.1 

48.7 

58.5 

68.2 

78.0 

21^ 

26.0 

32.5 

39.0 

43.5 

52.0 

58.5 

65.0 

78.0 

87.0 

104.0 

2il 

33.8 

42.2 

50.6 

59.1 

67.5 

75.9 

84.4 

101.3 

118.2 

135.0 

3^ 

43.0 

53.6 

64.4 

75.1 

85.8 

96.6 

107.3 

128.7 

150.3 

171.6 

3/r. 

53.6 

67.0 

79.4 

93.8 

107.2 

120.1 

134.0 

158.8 

187.6 

214.4 

3^^ 

65.9 

82.4 

97.9 

115.4 

121.8 

148.3 

164.8 

195.7 

230.7 

243.6 

SH 

80.0 

100.0 

120.0 

140.0 

160.0 

160.0 

200.0 

240.0 

280.0 

320.0 

4/b 

113.9 

142.4 

170.8 

199.3 

227.8 

256.2 

284.7 

341.7 

398.6 

455.6 

4il 

156.3 

195.3 

234.4 

273.4 

312.5 

351.5 

390.6 

468.7 

546.8 

625.0 

5^ 

207.9 

260.0 

311.9 

363.9 

415.9 

459.9 

520.0 

623.9 

727.9 

830.0 

6 

270.0 

337.5 

405.0 

472.5 

540.0 

607.5 

675.0 

810.0 

945.0 

1080.0 

6^ 

343.3 

429.0 

514.9 

600.7 

686.5 

772.4 

858.0 

1029.0 

1201.0 

1372.0 

7 

428.8 

535.9 

643.1 

750.3 

847.5 

964.7 

1071.9 

1286.0 

1500.0 

1695.0 

8 

640.0 

800.0 

960.0 

1126.0 

1280.0: 

1440.0 

1600.0 

1920.0 

2240.0 

2560.0 

602      CONSTRUCTION,   FARM  ENGINEERING,   MECHANICS 


Electric  appliances  on  the  farm. 

Many  electrically-operated  machines  and  devices  are  now  on  the 
market.  The  list  is  being  added  to  rapidly.  The  following  tabulation 
will  give  some  idea  of  the  development  along  these  lines,  aside  from 
electric  lighting  and  house  wiring  :  —  I 

Device  Horse-power 

Required 

Cream  separator K  to    4 

Milking  machine .  3  to    5 

Grindstone H 

Bottle-washer K 

Water-pump 1  to  10 

Shredder 10  to  15 

Silage-grinder 10  to  20 

Feed-grinder 5  to  10 

Threshing 10  to  20 

Wood-saw 3  to    5 

Corn-sheller 1  to    4 

Hay-press 4  to  25 

Refrigerating H  to  25 


The  motor  power  of  a  stream  (Rose). 

The  power  of  a  stream  may  be  calculated  by  the  following  formula  : 

P  =  Awh,  in  which  A  is  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  falling  in  one 

second  of  time,  w  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  and  h  is  the  head 

or  height  through  which  the  water  falls.     To  reduce  this   to   horse- 

Awhe 
power  the   formula  should  read  :  H.P.  = ,  in  which  e  represents 

550 
the  efficiency,  in  percentage,  of  the  type  of  wheel  to  be  used.     The  effi- 
ciencies of  the  various  types  of  water-motors  run  about  as  follows  :  — 

Per 
Cent 

Undershot  water-wheels 35 

Poucelet  wheels 60 

Breast  wheels 55 

High  breast  wheels 60 

Overshot  wheels 68 

Pelton  wheels 75 

Turbines  .     .     . 60-80 

Water-pressure  engines 80 

Rams 60 

These  values  are  only  approximate,  and  may  vary  either  way  sev- 
eral per  cent. 


RAMS  AND   ENGINES 


503 


Hydraulic  rams  (Ogden). 

The  following  table  gives  data  as  to  size,  capacity,  and  cost  of  hy- 
draulic rams :  — 


Size 


No.  2  . 

No.  4  . 

No.  6  . 

No.  10  . 


Flow  of 

Water 

Spring 

Drive 

Discharge 

Pumped 

PER    MiN. 

PER   MiN. 

gal. 

gal. 

1 

1 

h 

^ 

5 

n 

i 

1 

20 

2b 

1 

3 

50 

4 

2 

7 

Cost  of 
Ram 


$6.00 

8.00 

15.00 

35.00 


This  table  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  length  of  discharge 
pipe  is  not  over  100  feet,  and  that  the  head  against  which  the  ram 
works  is  not  over  five  times  as  great  as  the  fall  of  the  stream.  The 
drive  pipe  should  always  be  made  as  short  as  the  conditions  will  permit. 
In  winter  the  ram  may  be  kept  from  freezing  by  housing  it  and  pro- 
viding a  small  coal  fire  for  the  coldest  weather. 

Hot-air  engines  (Ogden). 

The  following  table  gives  data  of  sizes,  capacities,  fuel  cost,  of  the 
hot-air  engines  commonly  used  :  — 


Diameter 
op  Cylinder 

Size  of 
Pipe 

Fuel  Consumption  per  Hour 

Capacity 
in  Gal. 

Cost 

Gas  cu.  ft. 

Keros'e  qt. 

Coal  lb. 

inch 

5  .     .     .     . 

6  .     .     .     . 

8  .     .     .     . 
10   ...     . 

1 

1 

11 

13 
16 
20 
50 

1* 
2 

2 
3 
4 
5 

150 

300 

500 

1000 

$100 
140 
175 
250 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
Mason  Work.     Cements,  Paints,  Glues  and  Waxes 

Any  material  that  sets  or  hardens  when  dry  is  a  cement  ;  and  under 
this  general  name  may  therefore  be  included  glues  and  materials  used  for 
mending  or  sticking  together  broken  articles.  As  commonly  used, 
however,  the  word  cement  now  refers  to  building  or  construction 
material,  used  by  masons. 

The  formulas  here  given  are  largely  for  home-made  compounds, 
and  many  of  them  are  old-fashioned. 

Building  or  Mason's  Cement ;  Gravel,  and  Pitch 

Two  kinds  of  building  cement  comprise  the  common  construction 
grades  in  this  country,  —  natural-rock  cement  (Rosendale),  and  port- 
land  cement.  The  former  is  made  from  limestone  containing  much 
clay;  the  material  is  burned  at  a  low  heat,  and  is  then  ground.  It 
is  a  quick-setting  cement.  The  portland  cement  (named  from  Port- 
land Island  on  the  south  of  England)  is  an  artificial  mixture  of  some 
form  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with  some  clay,  burnt  at  white  heat  and  then 
ground.  The  natural-rock  cements  are  light-colored,  and  weigh 
from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  The  portland  cement  is 
dark-colored,  and  weighs  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  pounds  to  the 
cubic  foot ;  it  is  one-half  to  twice  stronger  than  natural-rock  cements. 

Approximate  estimates  of  mason-work. 

Three  and  one-half  barrels  of  lime  are  required  to  cover  100  square 
yards  plastering,   two   coats. 

Two  barrels  of  lime  will  cover  100  square  yards  plastering,  one  coat. 

One  and  one-half  bushels  of  hair  are  needed  for  100  square  yards 
plastering. 

One  and  one-fourth  yards  good  sand  are  required  for  100  square  yards 
plastering. 

604 


CEMENT   FOR    BUILDING  505 

One-third  barrel  of  plaster  (stucco)  will  hard-finish  100  square  yards 
plastering. 

One  barrel  of  best  lime  will  lay  1000  bricks. 

Two  barrels  of  lime  will  lay  one  cord  rubble-stone. 

One-half  barrel  of  lime  will  lay  one  perch  rubble-stone  (|  cord  to  perch) . 

To  every  barrel  of  lime  estimate  about  f  cubic  yard  of  good 
sand  for  plastering  and  brick  work. 

A  barrel  of  portland  cement  contains  approximately  3|  cubic  feet, 
and  weighs  380  pounds  ;  a  bag  contains  about  |  cubic  feet,  and 
weighs  95  pounds.  A  barrel  of  natural  cement  contains  approxi- 
mately 3^  cubic  feet,  and  weighs  300  pounds  ;  a  bag  contains  about 
I  cubic  feet,  and  weighs  about  75  pounds. 

Use  1  part  cement,  2  parts  sand,  4  parts  aggregate  (gravel  or 
crushed  stone),  for  very  strong  and  impervious  work. 

Use  1  cement,  2|  sand,  5  aggregate,  for  ordinary  work  requiring 
moderate  strength 

Use  1  cement,  3  sand,  6  aggregate,  for  work  where  strength  is  of 
minor  importance. 

Floors,  borders,  walks,  and  foundations. 
Grout  floor. 

1.  To  secure  a  good  grout  floor,  make  a  good  foundation  of  small 
stones  or  brickbats,  and  cover  three  or  four  inches  thick  with  a  thin 
mortar,  made  of  two  parts  sharp  sand  and  one  part  common  cement. 

2.  Fresh  powdered  lime,  2  parts  ;  portland  cement,  1  part ; 
gravel,  broken  stone,  or  brick,  6  parts.  Mix  with  water  to  a  liquid 
consistency,  and  let  it  be  thrown  forcibly,  or  dropped,  into  its  position. 
It  should  be  well  beaten  or  rammed  to  render  it  solid.  A  "  skim  "  of 
thin,  rich  mortar  may  be  placed  on  top  as  a  finish. 

3.  Equal  parts  of  gravel,  well  screened,  and  clean  river  or  pit  sand. 
With  5  parts  of  sand  and  gravel  mix  1  part  of  portland  cement. 
Mix  with  water  and  apply  1  inch  thick. 

For  garden  borders. 

4.  Nine  parts  gravel  and  1  part  unslaked  lime  ;  slake  the  lime  and  cover 
it  with  gravel,  then  add  water  sufficient  to  make  a  very  thin  mortar. 
Apply  three  inches  deep,  allow  it  to  stiffen  a  little,  then  roll.  Finish  an 
inch  thick  of  1  part  lime  and  3  parts  gravel.     Apply  soft.     See  No.  11. 


506      MASOX    WORK.      CEMENTS,  PAINTS,   GLUES,    WAXES 


For  walks. 

5.  Walks  should  always  have  a  well-made  foundation  of  stones  or 
brickbats  to  give  hardness  and  insure  drainage.  The  top  of  the  walk 
may  be  made  of  gravel,  sifted  coal  ashes,  cinders  from  foundries,  fur- 
naces, etc.  If  gravel  is  used,  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  the  round 
or  washed  gravel,  particularly  that  lying  in  the  beds  of  streams,  for  it 
will  not  pack.  One  part  of  clean  clay  to  four  or  five  of  gravel  makes 
a  good  walk.     Or  the  following  old  English  recipes  may  be  used  (6-10)  : 

6.  One  part  mineral  pitch,  1  part  resin,  7  parts  chalk,  and  2 
parts  coarse  sand.  Boil  together,  and  lay  it  while  in  a  hot  state,  adding 
a  little  gravel. 

7.  Boil  for  a  short  time  18  parts  of  mineral  pitch  and  18  parts 
of  resin  in  an  iron  kettle  ;  then  add  60  parts  of  coarse  sand,  mix 
well  and  lay  on  the  path  to  the  thickness  of  one  inch  ;  then  sift  a 
little  fine  gravel  over  it  and  beat  it  down  before  the  cement  sets. 

8.  Put  down  a  coat  of  tar,  and  sift  some  road  sand  or  coal  ashes  over 
it  very  thickly.  When  this  is  dry,  repeat  the  operation  until  you  have 
four  coats  of  tar  and  as  many  of  coal  ashes  or  road  sand. 

9.  Two  parts  of  thoroughly  dried  sand,  one  part  cinders,  thoroughly 
dried.  Mix  together  ;  then  spread  the  sand  and  cinders  on  the  ground 
and  make  a  hole  in  the  center,  into  which  pour  boiling-hot  tar  and 
mix  into  a  stiff  paste  ;  then  spread  on  the  walk,  beat  and  roll. 

10.  Two  parts  lime  rubbish  and  one  part  coal  ashes,  both  very  dry 
and  finely  sifted  ;  in  the  middle  of  the  heap  make  a  hole;  into  this 
pour  boiling-hot  coal-tar  ;  mix  to  a  stiff  mortar  and  spread  on  the 
ground  two  or  three  inches  thick.  The  ground  should  be  dry  and 
beaten  well.     Cover  with  coarse  sand  ;   when  cold,  roll  well. 

11.  Cement  walks.  A  good  method  of  making  concrete  walks  is 
to  lay  four  to  six  inches  on  well-drained  compact  ground  in  propor- 
tion of  1  part  cement  to  6  of  binder,  as:  40  shovels  fine  cinders,  15 
shovels  sharp  sand,  1  sack  portland  cement.  Put  on  a  finish,  while 
the  under  part  is  not  hard  set,  made  of  30  shovels  screened  sharp 
sand  and  1  sack  portland.     Also  used  for  borders  and  gutters. 

For  foundations 

12.  Concrete  foundations  for  buildings  and  heavy  work  may  be 
made  of  portland  cement,  2  parts;  sand,  7  parts;  grav^el,  1  part. 


CEMENTS    FOR    MENDING  507 


Coloring  cement  work. 

For  gray  or  black,  lampblack  may  be  employed. 
For  yellow  or  buff,  yellow  ocher. 
For  red,  Venetian  red. 
For  blue,  ultramarine. 
For  brown,  umber. 

Mending   Cements 
Cements  for  iron. 

1.  (Slow  setting.)  Sal  ammoniac,  2  ounces  ;  sulfur,  1  ounce  ;  clean 
iron  borings  or  filings  reduced  to  powder,  12  pounds  ;  water  enough 
to  form  a  thin  paste.  Excellent  for  making  a  rust  joint.  If  a  quick- 
setting  joint  is  desired,  use  half  as  much  sal  ammoniac  as  sulfur,  and 
half  as  much  iron  borings  as  above  ;  not  so  good  as  above 

2.  Sal  ammoniac,  2  ounces  ;  iron-filings,  8  pounds  ;  sufficient  water. 

3.  One  or  two  parts  of  sal  ammoniac  to  100  of  iron-filings.  When  the 
work  is  required  to  set  quickly,  increase  the  sal  ammoniac  slightly  and 
add  a  small  amount  of  sulfur. 

4.  Iron-filings,  4  pounds  ;  pipe-clay,  2  pounds  ;  powdered  pot- 
sherds, 11  pounds  ;   make  into  a  paste  with  moderately  strong  brine. 

5.  Equal  parts  of  red  and  white  lead,  mixed  into  a  paste  with  boiled 
linseed  oil.     Used  for  making  metallic  joints  of  all  kinds. 

6.  To  four  or  five  parts  of  clay,  thoroughly  dried  and  pulverized, 
add  2  parts  of  iron-filings,  free  from  oxide,  1  part  of  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, I  of  sea  salt,  and  h  of  borax  ;  mix  well,  and  reduce  to  a  thick 
paste  with  water.  Use  immediately.  Expose  to  warmth,  gradually 
increasing  almost  to  white  heat. 

7.  Sifted  coal  ashes,  2  parts,  and  common  salt,  1  part.  Add  water 
enough  to  make  a  paste,  and  apply  at  once.  This  is  also  good  for 
stoves  and  boilers,  as  it  stands  heat. 

Boiler  cements. 

8.  Chalk,  60  parts;  lime  and  salt,  of  each,  20  parts  ;  sharp  sand, 
10  parts  ;  blue  or  red  clay  and  clean  iron-filings,  of  each,  5  parts. 
Grind  together  and  calcine  or  heat. 

9.  Powdered  clay,  6  pounds  ;  iron-filings,  1  pound.  Make  into 
a  paste  with  linseed  oil. 


508      MASON     WORK.      CEMENTS,    PAINTS,     GLUES,     WAXES 

10.  Powdered  litharge,  2  parts  ;  silver  sand  and  slaked  lime,  of 
each,  1  part  ;  boiled  oil  enough  to  form  a  paste. 

These  cements  are  used  for  stopping  leaks  and  cracks  in  boilers, 
iron  pipes,  stoves,  etc.     They  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  made. 

Tar  cement. 

11.  Coal-tar,  one  part  ;  powdered  slate  (slate  flour),  three  or  four 
parts  ;  mix  by  stirring  until  thoroughly  incorporated.  Very  useful 
for  mending  watering-pots,  barrels,  leaky  sash,  etc.  It  remains  some- 
what elastic.  It  does  not  adhere  to  greasy  surfaces.  It  will  keep  for 
a  long  time  before  using. 

Copper  cement. 

12.  Beef  blood  thickened  with  sufficient  finely  powdered  quicklime 
to  make  it  into  a  paste  is  sometimes  used  to  secure  the  edges  and  rivets 
of  copper  boilers,  kettles,  etc.     Use  immediately. 

Fireproof  or  stone  cement. 

13.  Fine  river  sand,  20  parts  ;  litharge,  2  parts  ;  quicklime,  1 
part  ;  linseed  oil  enough  to  form  a  thick  paste.  Used  for  walls  and 
broken  stonework. 

Earthenware  cement. 

14.  Grated  cheese,  2  parts  ;  powdered  quicklime,  one  part;  fresh 
white  of  egg  enough  to  form  a  paste.     Use  as  soon  as  possible. 

For  fine  earthenware,  liquid  glue  may  be  used. 

Cement  for  glass. 

15.  Wood  alcohol  to  render  liquid  a  half  dozen  pieces  of  gum-mastic 
the  size  of  a  large  pea  ;  in  another  bottle  dissolve  the  same  quantity 
of  isinglass,  which  has  been  soaked  in  water  and  allowed  to  get  surface 
dry,  in  2  ounces  of  methylated  spirit  ;  when  the  first  is  dissolved 
add  two  pieces  of  gum-galbanum  or  gum-ammoniac  ;  apply  gentle 
heat  and  stir  ;  add  the  solution  of  isinglass,  heat  again  and  stir.  Keep 
in  a  tightly  stoppered  bottle,  and  when  used  in  boiling  water. 

Sealing  cements. 

16.  Beeswax,  1  pound;  resin,  5  pounds.  Stir  in  sufficient  red  ocher 
and  Brunswick  green,  or  lampblack,  to  give  the  desired  color. 


HOME-MADE    PAINTS  509 

17.  Black  pitch,  6  pounds  ;  ivory-black  and  whiting,  of  each,   1 
pound.     Less  attractive  than  the  former. 
These  are  used  for  sealing  up  bottles,  barrels,  etc. 

Paints  and  Protective  Compounds 

Home-made  washes  for  fences  and  out-buildings  may  be  made 
by  various  combinations  of  lime  and  grease.  The  following  are  good 
formulas  :  — • 

1.  Slake  fresh  quicklime  in  water,  and  thin  it  to  a  paste  or  paint  with 
skim-milk.  The  addition  of  two  or  three  handfuls  of  salt  to  a  pail 
of  the  wash  is  beneficial. 

2.  Two  quarts  skim-milk,  8  ounces  of  fresh  slaked  lime,  6  ounces 
of  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  2  ounces  of  white  pitch,  dissolved  in  the 
oil  by  a  gentle  heat.  The  lime  must  be  slaked  in  cold  water  and 
dried  in  the  air  until  it  falls  into  a  fine  powder  ;  then  mix  with  i 
part  of  the  milk,  adding  the  mixed  oil  and  pitch  by  degrees;  add 
the  remainder  of  the  milk.  Lastly,  add  3  pounds  of  the  best  whit- 
ing and  mix  the  whole  thoroughly. 

3.  Slake  ^  bushel  of  lime  in  boiling  water,  keeping  it  covered; 
strain  and  add  brine  made  by  dissolving  1  peck  of  salt  in  warm 
water,  and  3  pounds  rice  flour,  then  boil  to  a  paste  ;  add  ^  pound 
whiting  and  1  pound  of  glue  dissolved  in  warm  water.  Mix  and 
let  stand  for  a  few  days  before  using. 

Fire-proof  paint. 

4.  In  a  covered  vessel  slake  the  best  quicklime,  then  add  a  mixture  of 
skim-milk  and  water,  and  mix  to  the  consistency  of  cream  ;  then 
add  20  pounds  of  alum,  15  pounds  of  potash  and  1  bushel  of  salt  to 
every  100  gallons  of  the  liquid.  If  white  paint  is  desired,  add  to  the 
above  6  pounds  of  plaster  of  paris. 

For  damp  walls. 

5.  Three-fourths  pound  of  hard  soap  to  1  gallon  of  water.  Lay 
over  the  bricks  steadily  and  carefully  with  a  flat  brush,  so  as  not  to 
form  a  froth  or  lather  on  the  surface.  After  24  hours  mix  ^  pound 
of  alum  with  4  gallons  of  water  ;  let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours,  and 
then  apply  it  in  the  same  maimer  over  the  coating  of  soap.  Apply 
in  dry  weather. 


510  CEMENTS,    PAINTS,    GLUES,     WAXES 

6.  One  and  one-half  pounds  resin,  1  pound  tallow,  1  quart  linseed 
oil.     Melt  together  and  apply  hot,  two  coats. 

Water-proofing  paint  for  leather. 

7.  One-half  pound  of  shellac,  broken  into  small  pieces  in  a  quart 
bottle  ;  cover  with  methylated  spirit  (wood  alcohol),  cork  it  tight, 
put  it  in  a  warm  place,  and  shake  well  several  times  a  day  ;  then  add 
a  piece  of  camphor  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg  ;  shake  again  and  add  an 
ounce  of  lampblack.     Apply  with  a  small  paint  brush. 

8.  Put  into  an  earthen  jar  |  pound  of  beeswax,  ^  pint  of  neat's 
foot  oil,  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls  of  lampblack,  and  a  piece  of 
camphor  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg.  Melt  over  a  slow  fire.  Have  both 
grease  and  leather  warm,  and  apply  with  a  brush. 

9.  One  pint  of  linseed  oil,  h  pound  mutton  suet,  6  ounces  of  clean 
beeswax,  and  4  ounces  of  resin;  melt  and  mix  well.  Use  while  warm 
with  a  brush  on  new  boots  or  shoes. 

For  cloth  for  pits  and  frames.     (See  page  200.) 

10.  Old  pale  linseed  oil,  3  pints  ;  sugar  of  lead  (acetate  of  lead)  1 
ounce  ;  white  resin,  4  ounces.  Grind  the  acetate  with  a  little  of  the 
oil,  then  add  the  rest  and  the  resin.  Use  an  iron  kettle  over  a  gentle 
fire.     Apply  with  a  brush,  hot. 

For  paper. 

11.  Dissolve  if  pounds  of  white  soap  in  1  quart  of  water;  in  another 
quart  of  water  dissolve  1|  ounces  of  gum  arabic  and  5  ounces  of 
glue.  Mix  the  two  liquids,  warm  them,  and  soak  the  paper  in  it  and 
pass  through  rollers,  or  simply  hang  it  up  to  dry. 

To  PREVENT  METALS  FROM  RUSTING. 

12.  Melt  together  3  parts  of  lard  and  1  part  of  powdered  resin. 
A  very  thin  coating  applied  with  a  brush  will  keep  stoves  and  grates 
from  rusting  during  summer,  even  in  damp  situations.  A  little  black 
lead  can  be  mixed  with  the  lard.     Does  well  on  nearly  all  metals. 

To  PREVENT  RUSTING   OF  NAILS,    HINGES,  ETC. 

13.  One  pint  of  linseed  oil,  2  ounces  black  lead  ;  mix  together. 
Heat  nails  red-hot  and  dip  them  in. 


OLUE    AND     GUM  hl\ 


To  REMOVE  RUST. 


14.  Heavily  rusted  iron  may  be  cleaned  by  immersing  it  in  a  bath 
(not  too  acid)  of  chlorid  of  tin,  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  After 
removing,  rinse  in  water  and  then  in  ammonia. 

15.  Rusted  steel  may  be  brushed  with  a  paste  of  ^  ounce  cyanide 
potassium  (poisonous),  |  ounce  castile  soap,  1  ounce  of  whiting,  and 
water.     Then  wash  in  2  ounces  water  containing  \  ounce  cyanide. 

Amount  of  paint  required  for  a  given  surface. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  rule  that  will  apply  in  all  cases,  as  the 
amount  varies  with  the  kind  and  thickness  of  the  paint,  the  kind  of  wood 
or  other  material  to  which  it  is  applied,  the  age  of  the  surface,  etc.  The 
following  is  an  approximate  rule  :  Divide  the  number  of  square  feet  of 
surface  by  200.  The  result  will  be  the  number  of  gallons  of  liquid 
paint  required  to  give  two  coats  ;  or  divide  by  18,  and  the  result  will 
be  the  number  of  pounds  of  pure  ground  white  lead  required  to  give 
three  coats. 

Glues 
Liquid  glue. 

1.  Dissolve  2  pounds  of  best  pale  glue  in  a  quart  of  water  in  a  cov- 
ered vessel,  placed  in  a  hot-water  bath;  when  cold,  add  to  it  7  ounces 
of  commercial  nitric  acid.     When  cold  put  in  bottles. 

2.  Finest  pale  orange  shellac,  broken  small,  4  ounces  ;  methylated 
spirit,  3  ounces  ;  put  in  a  warm  place  in  a  closely  corked  bottle  until 
dissolved.  Should  have  the  consistency  of  molasses.  Or,  borax,  1 
ounce  ;  water,  f  pint  ;  shellac  as  before  ;  boil  in  a  closely  covered 
kettle  until  dissolved  ;  then  evaporate  until  nearly  as  thick  as 
molasses. 

Flower  gum. 

3.  Very  fine  white  shellac  mixed  with  methylated  spirit  in  a  stone 
jar  ;  shake  well  for  half  an  hour  and  place  by  a  fire,  and  shake  it 
frequently  the  first  day.  Keep  in  a  cool  place.  Leave  the  camel's- 
hair  brush  in  the  gum.  Never  fill  the  brush  too  full  and  gum  the  petals 
close  to  the  tube. 


512  CEMENTS  J    PAINTS,    GLUES,     WAXES 

Gum  for  labels  and  specimens. 

4.  Two  parts  of  gum-arabic,  one  part  of  brown  sugar  ;  dissolve  in 
water  to  the  consistency  of  cream. 

5.  Five  parts  of  best  glue  soaked  in  18  to  20  parts  of  water  for  a 
day,  and  to  the  liquid  add  9  parts  of  rock  candy  and  3  parts  of  gum- 
arabic. 

6.  Good  flour  and  glue,  to  which  add  hnseed  oil,  varnish,  and  tur- 
pentine, \  ounce  each  to  the  pound.  Good  when  labels  are  liable  to 
get  damp. 

Waxes  for  Grafting  and  for  Covering  Wounds 

Common  resin  and  beeswax  waxes. 

1.  A  standard  and  reliable  wax  is  as  follows  :  — 

Resin,  4  parts  by  weight. 

Beeswax,  2  parts  by  weight. 

Tallow  (rendered),  1  part  by  weight. 
Melt  all  the  ingredients  together,  exercising  care  to  avoid  boiling. 
Pour  the  hot  liquid  quickly  into  a  pail  of  cold  water.  With  greased 
hands  flatten  the  spongy  mass  beneath  the  water  so  that  it  cools  uni- 
formly. Permit  it  to  get  cold  and  tough,  but  not  brittle.  Remove 
from  the  water  and  pull  until  ductile  and  fine  in  grain.  Lumps  in 
wax  are  common,  and  are  due  to  improper  handling.  If  too  lumpy, 
remelt  and  pull  again.  Make  into  balls  or  small  skeins  and  put  away 
in  a  cool  place.  When  wanted  soften  with  heat  of  hand  or  in  hot 
water.  It  can  be  kept  for  years.  One  of  the  best  waxes,  either  for 
indoor  or  outdoor  use. 

For  general  purposes  the  above  formula  gives  a  wax  of  the  proper 
consistency.  The  ingredients  may  be  varied,  however,  for  special  pur- 
poses. If  a  softer  wax  is  desired,  more  tallow  in  proportion  should 
be  added.  The  addition  of  more  beeswax  makes  the  wax  tougher. 
By  thus  changing  the  amount  of  the  different  ingredients  a  wax  for 
almost  any  purpose  can  be  secured. 

2.  The  following  wax,  which  is  slightly  softer,  may  be  applied  more 
conveniently  in  cold  weather  :  — 

Resin,  4  parts  by  weight. 
Beeswax,  2  parts  by  weight. 
Linseed  oil,  1  pint. 


GRAFTING-WAXES  513 

Melt  all  together  gradually,  turn  into  cold  water  and  work  as  above. 
On  account  of  the  impurities  contained  in  linseed  oil,  its  use  is  not 
recommended  for  grafting  wax.     In  general  the  tallow  is  to  be  preferred. 

Alcoholic  wax. 

The  alcoholic  or  liquid  wax  is  a  thick  paste.     It  is  useful  for  work 
in  winter  when  the  resin  wax  can  not  be  applied  ;  and  also  for  cover- 
ing the  wounds  where  bark  has  been  injured  or  removed,  and  for  bridge 
grafts. 
Lefort's  hquid  wax : 

White  resin,  1  pound. 

Beef  tallow,  1  ounce. 

Turpentine,    1   tablespoonful. 

Alcohol,  5  ounces. 
Melt  the  resin  slowly.     When  hot,  add  the  beef  tallow.     Remove 
from  the  fire  and  add  slowly,  stirring  constantly,  the  turpentine  and 
alcohol.     Keep  in  closed  bottles  or  cans.    Use  a  brush  or  swab  to  apply. 

Pitch  wax. 

Some  of  the  French  authors  recommend  the  following  :  — 
Two  pounds  12  ounces  of  resin  and  1  pound  11  ounces  of  Burgundy 
pitch.  At  the  same  time  melt  9  ounces  of  tallow  ;  pour  the  latter 
into  the  former,  while  both  are  hot,  and  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly. 
Then  add  18  ounces  of  red  ocher,  dropping  it  in  gradually  and  stir- 
ring the  mixture  at  the  same  time. 

Waxed  string  and  bandages. 

1.  Waxed  bandage.  Waxed  bandages  are  very  useful  for  covering 
wounds  where  the  bark  has  been  broken  or  injured.  They  are  prepared 
as  follows. 

Old  cloth  is  torn  into  strips  of  the  desired  width  and  the  strips 
wound  into  balls,  or  bandage  cloth  (not  gauze)  may  be  used.  These 
balls  are  placed  in  the  kettle  of  melted  resin  wax.  In  a  few  min- 
utes they  will  be  thoroughly  saturated,  when  they  should  be  re- 
moved and  allowed  to  drain  and  dry. 

2.  Waxed  string  for  root-grafting.  Into  a  kettle  of  melted  resin 
wax  place  balls  of  No.  18  knitting  cotton.  Turn  the  balls  frequently, 
and  in  a  few  minutes  they  will  be  thoroughly  saturated.     Remove  from 

2l 


614  CEMENTS,   PAINTS,    GLUES,    WAXES 

the  kettle  and  allow  to  drain  and  dry,  after  which  they  may  be  put 
away  for  future  use. 

This  material  is  strong  enough  and  at  the  same  time  breaks  so  easily 
that  it  does  not  injure  the  hands.  When  the  string  is  used,  it  sticks 
without  tying. 

Covers  for  wounds. 

Before  applying  any  dressing,  the  wounds  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned.  Cut  out  or  remove  the  broken  bark  and  the  decayed  wood. 
It  is  also  advisable  to  disinfect  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  a  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  ounce  in  7  gallons. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  dressings  do  not  hasten  the  healing 
of  wounds,  but  they  allow  the  healing  process  to  progress  unchecked, 
because  they  prevent  the  wounds  from  drying  out  and  protect  them 
from  disease. 

1.  Any  of  the  above  grafting-waxes  are  excellent  for  dressing  wounds, 
although  most  of  them  cleave  off  after  the  first  year,  in  which  case  it 
is  necessary  to  apply  another  dressing. 

2.  HosKiNs'  WAX.  —  Boil  pine-tar  slowly  for  three  or  four  hours  ; 
add  ^  pound  of  beeswax  to  a  quart  of  the  tar.  Have  ready 
some  dry  and  finely  sifted  clay,  and  when  the  mixture  of  tar  and  wax 
is  partly  cold,  stir  into  the  above-named  quantity  about  12  ounces 
of  the  clay  ;  continue  the  stirring  until  the  mixture  is  so  stiff  and  so 
nearly  cool  that  the  clay  will  not  settle.  This  is  soft  enough  in  mild 
weather  to  be  easily  applied  with  a  knife  or  spatula.  —  Used  by  the 
late  Dr.  Hoskins,  of  Vermont. 

3.  Sch.\efell's  healing-paint.  —  Boil  linseed  oil  (free  from  cotton- 
seed oil)  one  hour,  with  an  ounce  of  litharge  to  each  pint  of  oil  ;  then 
stir  in  sifted  wood  ashes  until  the  paint  is  of  the  proper  consistency. 
Pare  the  bark  until  smooth,  as  the  fuzzy  edge  left  by  the  saw  will  cause 
it  to  die  back.  Paint  the  wound  over  in  dry  weather,  and  if  the  wound 
is  very  large,  cover  with  a  gunny-sack. 

4.  Paint.  —  One  of  the  most  convenient  and  useful  dressings  for 
wounds  is  paint.  Use  white  lead,  but  mix  thicker  than  usually  ap- 
plied. A  little  lampblack  should  be  added  to  this  until  the  paint 
is  nearly  the  color  of  the  bark.  Apply  with  a  brush  or  swab,  working 
the  paint  into  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Be  careful  that  it  does  not  run 
down  from  the  wound. 


WOUNDS    ON    TREES  515 

5.  Coal-tar.  —  Coal-tar  is  sometimes  useful  as  a  dressing,  especially 
for  shade  or  ornamental  trees.     Apply  a  thin  coating  to  the  wound. 

6.  Tar  for  bleeding  in  vines.  Add  to  tar  about  three  or  four  times 
its  weight  of  powdered  slate  or  some  similar  substance. 

7.  Collodion  for  bleeding  in  vines.  In  some  extreme  cases  two  or 
three  coats  will  be  needed,  in  which  case  allow  the  collodion  to  form  a 
film  before  applying  another  coat.  Pharmaceutical  collodion  is  better 
than  photographic. 

8.  Cement  for  cavities.  Rotten  spots  and  cavities  in  trees  should 
be  cleaned  out  to  hard  wood,  the  place  filled  solid  with  good  cement. 
(See  Manual  of  Gardening,  145-151.) 

The  grafting-waxes  are  applied  to  the  cut  surfaces  of  graft-unions 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  evaporation  of  the  plant  juices,  and 
protecting  from  weather  and  the  germs  of  decay.  Buds  covered  by 
wax  will  push  through  as  they  grow.  The  softer  the  wax  when  it 
is  applied,  the  closer  will  be  its  adhesion  to  the  wood.  Wax  is  often 
applied  to  ordinary  wounds ;  but  if  the  wounds  are  large  they  should 
first  be  treated  with  antiseptics  (as  bordeaux  mixture  or  similar 
compounds). 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

Computation    Tables 

Most  of  the  tables  and  estimates  that  the  farmer  needs  in  his  "figur- 
ing "  will  be  found  in  this  chapter  ;  but  greenhouse  computations  will 
be  found  in  Chapter  XI,  silos  and  other  construction  in  Chapter  XXV, 
and  board  measure  and  log  measure  in  Chapter  XII. 

Tabhs  of  Regular  American  Weights  and  Measures 

Avoirdupois  or  commercial  weight 

27Ji  grains =1  dram. 

16     drams =1  ounce. 

16     ounces =1  pound. 

25     pounds =1  quarter. 

4     quarters,  or  100  pounds =1  hundredweight. 

20     hundredweight,  or  2000  lb =1  ton. 

480     pounds =1  imperial  quarter. 

100     pounds  is  also  called 1  cental. 

2240    pounds =1  long  ton. 

t.       cwt.         lb.  oz.  dr.  gr. 

1  =  20  =  2000  =  32,000  =  512,000 
1  =     100  =     1.600  =    25,600 

1  =  16  =  256  =  7000 

1  =  16  =  4375 

Troy  or  jewelers'  weight 

24  grains =1  pennyweight. 

20  pennyweights =1  ounce. 

12  ounces =1  pound. 

lb.       oz.        pwt.         gr. 
1   =  12  =  240  =  5760 
1   =     20  =    480 
1   =       24 

Apothecaries'  weight 

20  grains =1  scruple. 

3  scruples =1  dram. 

8  drams =1  ounce. 

12  oiinces =1  pound. 

lb.       oz.        dr.         8cr.  gr. 

1  =-  12  =  96  =  288  =  5760 

1  =    8  =     24  =    480 

1  =       3  =       60 

1  =       20 

516 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES 


617 


Table  of  comparative  weights 

Avoirdupois  Troy  Apothecaries 

7000  gr.  =  1  lb.     5760  gr.  =  1  lb.     5760  gr.  =  1  lb. 

1  lb.  =        l?i\  lb.  =        1^  lb. 

or  144  lb.  =   175       lb.  =   175       lb. 

1  oz.  =         i5§  oz.  =         iSt  oz. 

or  192  oz.  =   175      oz.  =   175      oz. 

Dry  measure 

2  pints =1  quart. 

8  quarts =1  peck, 

4  pecks =1  bushel. 

8  bushels  (480  pounds) =1  quarter. 

36  bu =1  chaldron. 

bu.      pk.      qt.        pt. 

1  =  4  =  32  =  64 

1  =    8  =  16 

1=2 

Liquid  measure 

4  gills =1  pint. 

2  pints =1  quart. 

4  quarts =1  gallon. 

313^  gallons =1  barrel. 

2  barrels,  or  63  gallons =1  hogshead. 

gal.     qt.     pt.      gi. 

1  =  4  =  8  =  32 

1=2=8 

1  =    4 

Apothecaries*  fluid  measure 

60  minims =1  fluid  dram. 

8  fluid  drams =1  fluid  ounce. 

16  fluid  ounces =1  pint. 

8  pints =1  gallon. 

cong.    o.       f.  3.        f.  3.  m. 

1  =  8  =  128  =  1024  =  61,440 

1  =    16  =    128  =    7,680 

1  =        8  =       480 

1  =          60 

1  minim  equals  1  drop  of  water. 

Line  or  linear  measure 
12      inches =1  foot. 

3  feet =1  yard. 

53^  yards,  or  163^2  feet =1  rod  or  pole. 

40      rods =  1  furlong. 

8      furlongs  (320  rods) =  1  mile  (statute  mile). 

3      miles =1  league. 

1.       m.      fur.        rd.  yd.  ft.  in. 

1  =  3  =  24  =  960  =  5280   =  15,840   =  190,080 

1  =  8  =  320  =  1760   =  5,280   =  63,360 

1  =  40  =  220   =   660   =   7,920 

1  =    5}4  =  16^  =    198 

1   =     3   =     36 

1   =     12 


518 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


Surveyors'  or  chain  measure 

7.92  inches =1  link. 

25       links =1  rod  or  pole. 

4       rods,  or  66  feet =1  chain. 

80       chains =1  mile. 

mi.      ch.         rd.  1.  in. 

1  =  80  =  320  =  8000  =  63,360 
1  =      4  =     100  =        792 
1  =      25  =        198 

1  =  7.92 


Square  or  surface  measure 

144      square  inches =1  square  foot. 

9      square  feet =1  square  yard. 

30^^  square  yards =  1  sq.  rod  or  perch. 

160      square  rods =1  acre. 

640      acres        =  1  sq.  mile  or  section 


sq 

.  m. 

a. 

sq.  rd. 

sq.  yd. 

sq.  ft. 

sq.  in. 

1  = 

640 

=  102,400 

= 

3,097,600 

= 

27,878,400 

= 

4,014.489.600 

1 

160 

= 

4,840 

= 

43,560 

= 

6,272,640 

1 

= 

30M 

= 

272  K 

= 

39,204 

1 

= 

9 
1 

=, 

1,296 
144 

Surveyors*  square  measure 

625  square  links =1  square  rod  or  pole. 

16  poles =1  square  chain. 

10  square  chains =1  acre. 

640  acres =  1  sq.  mile  or  section. 

36  square  miles  (6  miles  square) =1  township. 


tp. 

sq.  mi. 

a. 

sq.  ch. 

sq.  rd. 

sq.l. 

1 

=  36  = 

23,040 

= 

230.400 

= 

3.686,400 

= 

2,304.000.000 

1  = 

640 

= 

6,400 

= 

102,400 

= 

64,000,000 

1 

B 

10 

= 

160 

= 

100.000 

1 

= 

16 

1 

_ 

10,000 
625 

Solid  or  cubic  measure 

1728      cubic  inches =1  cubic  foot. 

27       cubic  feet =1  cubic  yard. 

16      cubic  feet =1  cord  foot. 

8      cord  feet,  or  128  cubic  feet =1  cord  of  wood. 

24^  cubic  feet =1  perch. 


cu.  yd.cu.  ft.  cu.  in. 

cd.  cd.  ft.  cu.  ft.    cu.  in. 

1  =  27  =  46,656 

=  1  =  8  =  128  =  221,184 

METRIC    TABLES 


51v) 


Paper  and  book  denominations 

24  sheets =1  quire. 

20  quires =1  ream, 

2  reams =1  bundle. 

5  bundles =1  bale. 

bale  bdl.     rm.         qr.        sheets 

1  =  5  =  10  =  200  =  4800 

1  =    2  =    40  =    960 

1  =    20  =    480 

1  =      24 

500  sheets  is  often  called  a  ream  in  commerce. 

Folio  in  a  book  or  folded  periodical =    2  leaves,  or   4  pages. 

Quarto =    4  leaves,  or    8  pages. 

Octavo =    8  leaves,  or  16  pages. 

Duodecimo =12  leaves,  or  24  pages. 

16mo =16  leaves,  or  32  pages. 

18mo =18  leaves,  or  36  pages. 

24mo =24  leaves,  or  48  pages. 

32mo. =32  leaves,  or  64  pages. 


Metric  Weights  and  Measures 

Metric  weight 


Names 


Millier  or  Tonneau 
Quintal  .... 
Myriagram 
Kilogram  or  Kilo 
Hectogram 
Dekagram  .     . 
Gram      .... 
Decigram     .     . 
Centigram  .     . 
Milligram    .     .     . 


Number  op 
Grams 


1,000.000 

100,000 

10,000 

1,000 

100 

10 

1 

tV 

TOiJ 

tasa 


Equivalents  in 

Denominations  of 

Avoirdupois  Weight 


2204.6         lb. 

220.46      lb. 

22.046    lb. 

2.2046  lb. 

3.5274  oz. 

0.3527  oz. 

15.432    gr. 

1.5432  gr. 

0.1543  gr. 

0.0154  gr. 


One  gram  is  the  weight  of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  distilled  water 
at  its  maximum  density  (39.1°  F.)  in  a  vacuum.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  the  gram  now  in  use  is  the  one-thousandth  part  of  the 
weight  of  a  kilogram  of  platinum,  which  was  deposited  in  the  Palace 
of  the  Archives  in  Paris,  in  1799,  by  the  international  commission 
which  was  appointed  to  fix  the  standards  of  what  is  now  known  as  the 
metric  system. 


520 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


Metric  capacity 


Names 

NUMBEB 
OF 

Liters 

Equivalents  in  Dry 
Measure 

Equivalents  in 

Liquid  or 
Wine  Measure 

Kiloliter  or  Stere 

Hectoliter 

Dekaliter 

Liter  

Deciliter 

Centiliter 

Milliliter 

1000 

100 

10 

1 
h 

1000 

28.372  bu. 
2  bu.  and  3.35  pk. 
9.08  qt. 
0.908  qt. 
6.1022  cu.  in. 
0.6102  cu.  in. 
0.061  cu.  in. 

264.17       gal. 
26.417    gal. 
2.6417  gai. 
1.0567  qt. 
0.845  gill. 
0.338  fluid  oz. 
0.27  fluid  dr. 

1  liter  18  equivalent  to  1  cubic  decimeter. 
Metric  length 


Myriameter 10,000  meters. 

Kilometer 1,000  meters. 

Hectometer 100  meters. 

Dekameter 10  meters. 

Meter 1  meter. 

Decimeter T*oofameter. 

Centimeter too  of  a  meter. 

Millimeter looo  of  a  meter. 


Equivalents  in  Denominations 
IN  Use 


6.2137 

miles. 

0.62137 

mile,  or 

3.280  ft.lO  in. 

328 

ft.  1  in 

393.7 

inches. 

39.37 

inches. 

3.937 

inches. 

0..3937 

inch. 

0.0397 

inch. 

Metric  surface 


Hectare 10,000  square  meters. 

Are 100  square  meters. 

Centare 1  square  meter. 


2.471  acres. 
119.6      square  yards. 
1550  square  inches. 


Metric  cubic  measure 

Myriaster 10,000  cu.  meters. 

Kiloster 1,000  cu.  meters. 

Hectoster 100  cu.  meters. 

Decaster        10  cu.  meters. 

Ster 1  cu.  meter. 

Decister 1*0  cu.  meter. 

Centister iSo  cu.  meter. 

Minister ra'ao  cu.  meter. 

The  word  ster  is  soldom  used.  The  names  of  solid  measures  are  commonly 
made  by  adding  cubic  to  the  denominations  of  linear  measure  ;  as  cubic  meter, 
cubic  decimeter,  and  the  like. 


METRIC   TABLES 


521 


Equivalents  of  American  measures  in  metric  terms 


Approximately 
1  inch  is  2J^  centimeters 
1  foot  is  0.3  of  meter       .     . 
1  yard  is  0.9  of  meter      .     . 
1  rod  is  5  meters    .... 
1  chain  is  20  meters    . 
1  furlong  is  200  meters    .     . 
1  mile  is  1600  meters       .     . 
1  nautical  mile  is  1850  meters 


Exactly 

(2.54) 

(.3048) 

(.9144) 

(5.029) 

(20.117) 

(201.17) 

(1609.3) 

(1853.2) 


1  sq.  inch  is  6\  sq.  centimeters 
1  sq.  foot  is  0.09  of  sq.  meter  . 
1  sq.  yard  is  0.83  of  sq.  meter 
1  sq.  rod  is  25  sq.  meters  .  . 
1  rood  is  1000  sq.  meters  .  . 
1  acre  is  0.4  of  hectare  .  .  . 
1  sq.  mile  is  258  hectares     .     . 


(6.451) 
(.0929) 
(.8361) 
(25.29) 

(1011.7) 
(.4047) 

(258.99) 


1  cubic  inch  is  161  cubic  centimeters 
1  cubic  foot  is  0.028  of  cubic  meter 
1  cubic  yard  is  0.76  of  cubic  meter 
100  cubic  feet  is  2.8  cubic  meters 
1  M  board  meas.  is  23^  cubic  meters 
1  cord  is  3.6  cubic  meters    . 
1  U.  S.  liquid  pint  is  0.47  of  liter 
1  U.  S.  liquid  quart  is  0.9  of  liter 
1  U.  S.  liquid  gallon  is  3.7  liters  . 

1  peck  is  9  liters 

1  bushel  is  36  liters 


8.81 
35.24 


(16.387) 

(.028316) 

(.7645) 

(2.8316) 

(2.36) 

(3.624) 

(.473) 

(.946) 

(3.785) 

Eng.    9.08) 

Eng.  36.35) 


1  grain  is  0.06}^  of  gram 
1  troy  oz.  is  31  grams  .  . 
1  avoir,  oz.  is  28  grams  .  . 
1  avoir,  lb.  is  0.45  of  kilo  . 
60  lb.  (wheat  bu.)  is  27  kilos 
80  lb.  (coal  bu.)  is  36  kilos 
1  cental  is  45  kilos  .  .  . 
112  lb.  (cwt.)  is  50  kilos  . 
1  net  ton  is  0.9  metric  ton  . 
1  gross  ton  is  1  metric  ton  . 


(.0648) 

(31.103) 

(28.35) 

(.4536) 

(27.216) 

(36.287) 

(45.36) 

(50.8) 

(.9072) 

(1.016) 


Money  Tables 

English  money 

4  farthings  (qr.)  =  1  penny  (d.). 

12  pence  =1  shilling  (s.). 

20  shillings =  1  pound  or  80vereign(£). 

21  shillings =1  guinea  (g.). 

£.         8.  d.  qr. 

1  =  20  =  240  =  960 

1  =    12  =    48 

1  pound  is  about  $4.86.  1=4 


622 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


French  money 

10  millimes  (m.) =1  centime  (c). 

10  centimes =1  decime  (d.). 

10  decimes =1  franc  (Jr.). 

fr.        d.  c.  m. 

1   =  10  =  100  =  1000 
1   =     10  =     100 
1  franc  is  nearly  20  (19.3)  cents.  1  =       10 

German  money 

100  pfennige  (p/.) =1  mark. 

A  mark  is  about  24  cents. 

Dutch  money 

100  cents =1  florin  or  guilder. 

A  florin  is  40  cents. 

Italian  money 

100  centesimi =1  lira. 

A  lira  is  nearly  20  (19.3  ) cents. 

Spanish  money 

100  centimos =1  peseta. 

1  peseta  is  nearly  20  (19.3)  cents. 

Russian  money 

100  copecks =1  ruble. 

A  ruble  is  about  51  cents. 

Austrian  money 

100  heller =1  crown. 

A  crown  is  about  20  cents. 

Monetary  units  of  American  countries,  and  value  of  coins  in  U.  S.  money  (1911) 


Argentina 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British  possessions,  N.  A.  (except  Newfoundland) 

Chile 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

Ecuador       

Guatemala 

Haiti 

Honduras 

Mexico 

Newfoundland 

Nicaragua 

Panama        

Peru 

Salvador 

Santo  Domingo 

Uruguay      

Venezuela 


Monetary 
Unit 

VALUE    IN 

Terms  of  U.  S. 

Gold  Dollar 

Peso 

$0,965 

Boliviano 

0.389 

Milreis 

0.546 

Dollar 

1.000 

Peso 

0.365 

Dollar 

1.000 

Colon 

0.465 

Peso 

0.439 

Sucre 

0.487 

Peso 

0.389 

Gourde 

0.965 

Peso 

0.389 

Dollar 

0.498 

Dollar 

1.014 

Peso 

0.389 

Balboa 

1.000 

Libra 

4.866 

Peso 

0.389 

Dollar 

1.000 

Peso 

1.030 

Bolivar 

0.187 

MONEY   TABLES  623, 

In  Argentine  Republic,  paper  money  is  in  circulation,  convertible  in  U.  S.  gold 
at  44  per  cent  of  face  value.  In  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Haiti,  most  Central 
American  countries,  the  paper  currency  is  inconvertible  ;  the  exchange  rate  is 
now  (1911)  approximately  $0,324  in  Brazil,  SO. 215  in  Chile,  SlOO  paper  to  SI  gold 
in  Colombia,  SO. 238  in  Haiti,  much  depreciated  and  subject  to  wide  fluctuations 
in  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Salvador.  In  British  Honduras  the  mone- 
tary unit  is  the  dollar,  being  worth  par  in  U.  S.  gold. 

Paraguay.  —  The  Argentine  paper  peso,  which  has  a  value  of  42.46  cents  U.  S. 
gold,  circulates  currently  in  Paraguay,  as  do  the  silver  coins  of  Argentina.  A 
large  amount  of  paper  money  of  the  Republic  of  Paraguay  is  also  in  circulation. 
This  money  fluctuates  in  value,  but  usually  a  Paraguayan  paper  peso  is  worth 
about  eight  cents  U.  S.  gold. 

Other  foreign  coins  in  equivalents  of  U.  S.  money  (1911) 

Austria-Hungary Crown  =  $0,203  U.  S.  Money 

Belgium Franc  =   0.193 

British  India Rupee  =   0.324 

China Tael  =   0.420-0.649 

(according  to  the  province) 

Denmark Crown  =  0.268  "         " 

Egypt       Pound  =   4.943 

(100  piasters)  "  •' 

Finland Mark  =   0.193 

France Franc  =    0.193 

Germany Mark  =   0.238 

Great  Britain Pound  =   4.866 

Greece Drachma  =   0.193  "         " 

Italy Lira  =   0.193 

Japan Yen  =   0.498 

Liberia Dollar  =    1.000 

Netherlands Florin  =    0.402 

Norway Crown  =    0.268 

Persia Kran  =   0.170 

Philippines Peso  =   0.50  "  " 

Portugal Milreis  =    1.08  "  " 

Roumania Leu  =   0.193  "         " 

Russia Ruble  =^   0.515  "         " 

Servia Dinar  -=   0.193 

Siam Tical  =   0.370 

Spain Peseta  =   0.193 

Straits  Settlements Dollar  =   0.421 

Sweden Crown  =   0.268 

Switzerland Franc  =    0.193 

Turkey Piaster  =   0.044 

The  shekel  of  the  Hebrews  (silver)  was  probably  between  70  and  75  cents  in 
value. 

The  talent  (silver)  of  the  Hebrews  was  upwards  of  $2100. 

The  penny  (value  in  pennies  is  pence,  as  two-pence,  six-pence)  is  an  English 
denomination,  equivalent  to  about  2  cts.  in  U.  S.  money  ;  used  also  colloquially 
for  the  U.  S.  cent. 

The  shilling  is  typically  an  English  denomination,  practically  equivalent  to  the 
"  quarter ' '  in  the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  In  the  U.  S.  it  has  different  value  in  different 
regions  (but  now  little  used),  due  to  the  extent  of  depreciation  of  the  pound  when 
the  decimal  system  was  adopted.  The  usual  values  are  16§  cts.  in  New  England, 
and  12j  cts.  in  New  York  and  westward.  In  parts  of  the  country  farther  south 
it  was  135  cts.  and  21^  cts.     A  shilling  is  sometimes  called  a  bit. 


524 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


Approximate  money-table.     (Baedeker) 


English 

Dutch 

French  and 
Belgian 

German 

American 

£ 

B. 

d. 

florin 

cent 

franc 

cent 

mark 

Pfg. 

dollar 

cent 

1 

12 

25 

20 

4 

86 

19 

11 

40 

23 

75 

19 

4 

53 

18 

10 

80 

22 

50 

18 

4 

29 

17 

10 

20 

21 

25 

17 

4 

5 

16 

9 

60 

20 

16 

3 

81 

15 

9 

18 

75 

15 

3 

57 

14 

8 

40 

17 

50 

14 

3 

34 

13 

7 

80 

16 

25 

13 

3 

10 

12 

7 

20 

15 

12 

2 

86 

11 

6 

60 

13 

75 

11 

2 

62 

10 

6 

12 

50 

10 

2 

38 

9 

5 

40 

11 

25 

9 

2 

14 

8 

4 

80 

10 

8 

1 

91 

7 

4 

20 

8 

75 

7 

1 

67 

6 

3 

60 

7 

50 

6 

1 

43 

5 

3 

6 

25 

5 

1 

19 

4 

2 

40 

5 

4 

95 

3 

1 

80 

3 

75 

3 

71 

2 

1 

20 

2 

50 

2 

48 

1 

8}-^ 

1 

2 

15 

1 

70 

40 

1 

7 

96 

2 

1 

60 

38 

1 

9li 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

60 
48 
45 
40 
35 
30 
25 
20 
15 
10 
5 

1 
1 

25 

94 
83 
73 
62 
52 
42 
31 
21 
10 

1 

80 
75 
66 
58 
50 
41 
33 
25 
16 
8 

24 

19 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

Legal  rates  of  interest 


Legal  Rate 
Per  Cent 

Rate  allowed  bt 
Contract.  Per  Cent 

Alabama 

8 
6 
6 
7 
8 
6 
6 
6 
8 

8 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

As  agreed 

10 
As  agreed 

As  agreed 

Connecticut 

6 
6 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

10 
10 

INTEREST   TABLE 
Legal  rates  of  interest  —  Continued 


525 


Georgia  .... 

Idaho      .... 

Illinois    .... 

Indiana  .... 

Iowa 

Kansas  .... 

Kentucky   .     .     . 

Louisiana    .     .     . 

Maine    .... 

Maryland   .     .     . 

Massachusetts 

Michigan    .     .     . 

Minnesota .     .     . 

Mississippi 

Missouri      .     . 

Montana     . 

Nebraska    .     .     . 

Nevada  .... 

New  Hampshire  . 

New  Jersey      .     . 

New  Mexico    .     . 

New  York  .     .     . 

North  Carolina    . 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma  . 

Oregon   .... 

Pennsylvania  . 

Rhode  Island  .     . 

South  Carolina    . 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee  .     .     . 

Texas     .... 

Utah       .... 

Vermont     .     .     . 

Virginia       .     .     . 

Washington     .     . 

West  Virginia .     . 

Wisconsin  .     .     . 

Wyoming    . 

Canada 

British  Columbia 
Manitoba     .     . 
New  Brunswick 
Nova  Scotia     . 
Ontario   . 
Quebec    .     .     . 

Scotland      .     .     . 

England 


Legal  Rate 

Rate  Allowed  by 

Per  Cent 

Contract.  Per  Cent 

7 

8 

7 

12 

5 

7 

6 

8 

6 

8 

6 

10 

6 

6 

5 

8 

6 

As  agreed  * 

6 

6 

6 

As  agreed 

5 

7 

6 

10 

6 

10 

6 

8 

8 

As  agreed 

7 

10 

7 

As  agreed 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

12 

6 

6« 

6 

6 

7 

12 

6 

8 

7 

10 

6 

10 

6 

6 

6 

As  agreed 

7 

8 

7 

12 

6 

6 

6 

10 

8 

12 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

12 

6 

6 

6 

10 

8 

12 

5 

As  agreed 

6 

As  agreed 

5 

As  agreed 

6 

7  or  10 

5 

As  agreed 

6 

As  agreed 

5 

As  agreed 

4 

As  agreed 

1  Maine,  15  per  cent  by  contract  unless  stipulated. 

*  New  York,  on  collateral  loans  of  $5000  and  upward,  any  rate  agreed. 


526 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


Wage-Tables 

Day  wages  (10-hr.  day)  —  Continued  on  opposite  page 
Fractions  of  a  Day  at  — 


Time 

75  J? 

$1.00 

$1.25 

$1.50 

$1.75 

$2.00 

$2.50 

$3.00 

A  DAT 

A  DAY 

A   DAY 

A   DAY 

A   DAY 

A   DAY 

A   DAY 

A   DAY 

i  hour 

.031 

.05 

.06} 

.07i 

.08f 

.10 

..2J 

.15 

1       " 

.07i 

.10 

.12n 

.15 

.17:: 

.20 

.25 

.30 

2  hours 

.15 

.20 

.25 

.30 

.35 

.40 

.50 

.60 

3      " 

.22i 

.30 

.37^ 

.45 

.52J 

.60 

.75 

.90 

4      " 

.30 

.40 

.50 

.60 

.70 

.80 

1.00 

1.20 

5      •* 

.37i 

.50 

.62^ 

.75 

.871 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

6      " 

.45 

.60 

.75 

.90 

1.05 

1.20 

1.50 

1.80 

7      " 

.52J 

.70 

.871 

1.05 

1.221 

1.40 

1.75 

2.10 

8      " 

.60 

.80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.40 

1.60 

2.00 

2.40 

9      " 

.67i 

.90 

1.12i 

1.35 

1.57^ 

1.80 

2.25 

2.70 

Month  wages  (26  days) 

When  men  are  employed  by  the  year  at  a  monthly  wage,  it  is  customary  to 
calculate  by  calendar  months,  whether  they  contain  25  or  27  working  days. 


TniE 

$15 

$18 

$20 

$22 

$24 

$25 

$27 

$30 

$35 

$40 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

MO. 

Iday 

.58 

.69 

.77 

.85 

.92 

.96 

1.04 

1.15 

1.35 

1.54 

2  days 

1.15 

1.38 

1.54 

1.69 

1.85 

1.92 

2.08 

2.31 

2.69 

3.08 

3       • 

1.73 

2.08 

2.31 

2.54 

2.70 

2.88 

3.12 

3.46 

4.04 

4.62 

4      " 

2.31 

2.77 

3.08 

3.38 

3.69 

3.85 

4.15 

4.62 

5.38 

6.16 

5     " 

2.89 

3.46 

3.85 

4.23 

4.62 

4.81 

5.19 

5.78 

6.73 

7.70 

6     " 

3.46 

4.15 

4.62 

5.08 

5.54 

5.77 

6.23 

6.92 

8.08 

9.24 

7     " 

4.04 

4.85 

5.38 

5.92 

6.46 

6.73 

7.27 

8.08 

9.42 

10.76 

8     " 

4.62 

5.54 

6.15 

6.77 

7.38 

7.69 

8.31 

9.24 

10.77 

12.30 

9     " 

5.19 

6.23 

6.92 

7.61 

8.31 

8.65 

9.35 

10.38 

12.11 

13.84 

10     " 

5.77 

6.92 

7.69 

8.46 

9.23 

9.62 

10.38 

11.54 

13.46 

15.38 

11      " 

6.35 

7.62 

8.46 

9.31 

10.15 

10.58 

11.42 

12.70 

14.81 

16.92 

12     " 

6.92 

8.31 

9.23 

10.15 

11.08 

11.54 

12.46 

13.84 

16.15 

18.46 

13     " 

7.50 

9.00 

10.00 

11.00 

13.00 

12.50 

13.50 

15.00 

17.50 

20.00 

14     " 

8.08 

9.69 

10.77 

11.85 

13.92 

13.46 

14.54 

16.16 

18.85 

21.54 

15     " 

8.65 

10.38 

11.54 

12.69 

14.85 

14.42 

15.58 

17.30 

20.19 

23.08 

16     " 

9.23 

11.08 

12.31 

13.54 

14.77 

15.38 

16.62 

18.46 

21.54 

24.62 

17     " 

9.81 

11.77 

13.08 

14.38 

15.69 

16.35 

17.65 

19.62 

22.88 

26.16 

18     " 

10.38 

12.46 

13.85 

15.23 

16.62 

17.31 

18.69 

20.76 

24.23 

27.70 

19     " 

10.96 

13.15 

14.62 

16.08 

17.54 

18.27 

19.73 

21.92 

25.58 

29.24 

20     •• 

11.54 

13.85 

15.38 

16.92 

18.46 

19.23 

20.77 

23.08 

26.92 

30.76 

21      " 

12.11 

14.54 

16.15 

17.77 

19.38 

20.19 

21.81 

24.22 

28.27 

32.30 

22     " 

12.69 

15.23 

16.92 

18.61 

20.31 

21.15 

22.85 

25.38 

29.61 

33.84 

23     " 

13.27 

15.92 

17.69 

19.46 

21.23 

22.12 

23.88 

26.54 

30.96 

35.38 

24     " 

13.85 

16.62 

18.46 

20.31 

22.15 

23.08 

21  02 

27.70     32.31 

36.92 

25     " 

14.42 

17.31 

19.23 

21.15 

23.08 

24.04 

'_'."). '.Hi 

■JS,S.") 

;^3.65 

38.46 

THERMOMETERS 


527 


Whole  Days  at — 


TUO! 

7b  ^ 

$1.25 

$1.50 

$1.7.5 

$2.00 

$2..50 

$.3.00 

A  DAT 

A  DAT 

A    DAY 

A    DAT 

A   DAT 

A   DAT 

A   DAY 

2  days 

1.50 

2.50 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

5.00 

6.00 

3     " 

2.25 

3.75 

4.50 

5.25 

6.00 

7.50 

9.00 

4     " 

3.00 

5.00 

6.00 

7.00 

8.00 

10.00 

12.00 

5     " 

3.75 

6.25 

7.50 

8.75 

10.00 

12.50 

15.00 

6     " 

4.50 

7.50 

9.00 

10.50 

12.00 

15.00 

18.00 

7     " 

5.25 

8.75 

10.50 

12.25 

14.00 

17.50 

21.00 

8     " 

6.00 

10.00 

12.00 

14.00 

16.00 

20.00 

24.00 

0      " 

0.7.5 

11.2.5 

13.50 

15.75 

18.00 

22.50 

27.00 

11      " 

8.2.5 

13.7.5 

16.50 

19.25 

22.09 

27.50 

33.00 

12      " 

9.00 

15.00 

18.00 

21.00 

24.00 

30.00 

36.00 

13      " 

9.75 

16.25 

19.50 

22.75 

26.00 

32.50 

39.00 

14      " 

10.50 

17.50 

21.00 

24.50 

28.00 

35.00 

42.00 

Thermometer  Scales 


Fahrenheit.  — The  fref3zing-point  is  taken  as  the  thirty-second  degree 
of  the  scale,  and  180  degrees  are  made  between  that  and  the  boiling- 
point,  which  therefore  becomes  212^.  The  zero  of  Fahrenheit  was  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  absolute  zero,  or  lowest  po.ssible  temperature. 

Centigrade  or  Celsius.  —  The  freezing-point  of  water  Is  taken  as  zero, 
and  boiling-point  as  100^. 

Reaumur.  —  The  freezing-point  of  water  is  taken  as  zero,  the  boiling- 
point  as  80°.  A  degree  Centigrade  Is  therefore  greater  than  a  degree  of 
Fahrenheit  as  9  Ls  greater  than  5;  and  a  degree  of  Reaumur  Is  greater, 
as  9  Is  greater  than  4. 

To  reduce  Fahrenheit  degrees  to  Centigrade,  subtract  32  from  the 
given  degree  of  Fahrenheit,  and  multiply  the  remainder  by  5  and 
divide  it  by  9 ;  CF.  degrees  —  32)  f-  To  reduce  Centigrade  to  Fahr- 
enheit, multiply  the  given  degree  of  Centigrade  by  9  and  divide  the 
product  by  5,  then  to  the  quotient  add  32:    (f  C.°  +  32). 

To  reduce  Fahrenheit  to  Reaumur,  subtract  32  from  the  given 
degree  of  Fahrenheit  and  multiply  the  remainder  by  4  and  divide 
by  9  :    fF.°-32)i 

To  reduce  Reaumur  to  Fahrenheit,  multiply  the  given  degree  of  Reau- 
mur by  9  and  divide  by  4,  then  add  32  :    (I  R°  +  32). 

To  reduce  Reaumur  to  Centigrade,  multiply  by  f . 


628  COMPUTATION   TABLES 

Miscellaneous  Measures,   Weights,  and  Estimates 

Measures  and  dimensions  of  many  kinds 

^  of  an  inch =  a  line  (American). 

!>(,  of  an  inch =  a  line  (French). 

3  inches =  a  palm. 

4  inches =  a  hand. 

9  inches =  a  span. 

18  inches =  a  cubit. 

2^  feet =  a  military  pace. 

3  (or  3.3)  feet =  a  pace. 

6  feet =1  fathom. 

240  yards =1  cable's  length. 

12  of  any  article =1  dozen. 

12  dozen        =1  gross. 

20  of  any  article =1  score. 

A  wine  gallon  (U.  S.  standard) =     231  cubic  inches, 

A  dry  gallon =     268.8      cubic  inches. 

An  imperial  gallon  (British  standard) =     277.274  cubic  inches. 

An  imperial  or  English  bushel =  2218.192  cubic  inches. 

A  U.  S.  bushel        =  2150.42    cubic  inches. 

A  U.  S.  bushel  heaped  (heaped  to  a  cone  6  inches  high)      =  2747.7      cubic  inches. 

1  pint  of  water  weighs  1.0431  pounds. 

1  gallon  of  water  weighs  8.3448  pounds. 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.425  pounds  at  39.2°  F. 

1  atone  is 14  pounds. 

An  English  (statute)  mile  is 1760  yards. 

A  Scotch  mile  is 1984  yards. 

An  Irish  mile  is 2249  yards. 

A  Dutch  mile  is 8101  yards. 

A  Roman  mile  is 1628  yards. 

A  German  mile  is        6859  yards. 

A  Russian  mile  is        1100  yards. 

An  Arabian  mile  is 2148  j'ards. 

A  sea  (nautical)  mile  is        2026  yards  (IJ  mi.). 

A  knot  is  the  traveling  speed  of  a  ship,  reckoned  by  making 
1  sea-mile  in  1  hour. 

1  tael  (Chinese)  is li  oz.  avoir. 

1  Dani.sh  pound  is 1.102  lb.  avoir. 

1  Russian  pound  is 9  lb.  avoir. 

1  libra  (Spanish)  is 1.014  lb.  avoir. 

1(X)  pounds  nails =1  keg. 

196  pounds  flour =1  barrel. 

150  pounds  potatoes       =1  barrel  of  freight. 

280  pounds  salt =1  barrel. 

200  pounds  beef,  fish,  or  pork =1  barrel. 

45  drops  of  water  is  a  tea.spoonful. 
1  tea.spoonful  equals  1  fluid  dram. 
1  dos.sert.spoonful  equals  2  tea.spoonfuls,  or  2  drams. 

1  tableapoonful  equals  2  do.s.sertspoonfuls,  or  4  teaspoonfuls. 

2  tablespoonfuls  equal  8  tea.spoonfuls,  or  1  fluid  ounce. 
1  common-size  wineglassful  e<iuals  2  ounces,  or  3^  gill. 
1  common-size  tumbler  hold.s  '^  pint. 

A  small  tea-cup  is  estimated  to  hold  4  fluid  ounces,  or  1  gill. 

1  pound  of  wheat  is  equal  to  about  1  pint. 

1  pound  and  2  ounces  of  Indian  meal  is  equal  to  1  quart. 

1  pound  of  soft  butter  is  cfiuul  to  about  1  pint. 

1  pound  of  sugar  is  equal  to  about  1  pint. 

A  pint  of  pure  water  is  about  a  pound. 

A  barleycorn  is  J  inch. 

An  ell  is  usually  45  inches. 

A  point  (in  type)  is  y'j  inch. 

A  circle  is  3.1415  times  the  length  of  its  diameter  (the  ratio  being  known  as  pi). 


FRUIT  FIGURES  529 

Weights  of  various  varieties  oj  apples  per  bushel 

The  following  varieties,  just  from  the  trees  in  October,  gave  the 
following  weights  for  a  heaped  bushel  (Michigan) :  — 

Baldwin 50  1  Fallawater 48 

Belmont 50     Golden  Ruaset 53 


Ben  Davi3 47 

Bunker    Hill 49 

Cabashae        57 

Esopus  Spitzenburgh        44 

Rambo 50 

Rhode  Island  Greening 52 

Roxbury  Russet 50 

Rubicon 46 

Stark 56 


Lawyer 47 

Nickajack 51 

Northern  Spy 46 

Pennock 47 

Swaar 51 

Sweet  Bough 39 

Talman  Sweet 48 

Tompkins  King 44 

Yellow  Bellefleur 46 


Dried  fruit  and  cider 

A  bushel  of  average  apples  gives  from  6  to  7|  pounds  of  evap- 
orated product.     Seven  pounds  to  the  bushel  is  a  good  average. 

PRODUCT  OF  DRIED  RASPBERRIES    {W.  J.  Green) 

Ohio 9      lb.  to  the  bu.  1  Ada 8 1^  lb.  to  the  bu. 

Gregg 8H  lb.  to  the  bu.      Tyler 8H  lb.  to  the  bu. 

Hillborn 8^  lb.  to  the  bu.  |  Shaffer 8      lb.  to  the  bu. 

In  general,  three  and  one-fourth  quarts  (about  four  pounds)  of  fresh 
black-cap  raspberries  are  required  for  a  pound  of  marketable  dried 
berries. 

A  pound  of  dried  peaches  may  be  made  from  four  or  five  pounds  of 
fresh  fruit,  if  the  variety  has  a  dry  flesh  ;  but  six  or  seven  pounds  is 
often  required. 

In  California,  twenty  pounds  of  grapes  produce  six  or  seven  pounds 
of  raisins. 

From  seven  to  twelve  bushels  of  apples  are  required  for  a  barrel  of 
cider. 

Various  estimates. 

Raspberries  contain  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  pounds  of  seeds 
to  the  bushel. 

A  pint  of  garden  blackberries  weighs  about  one  pound. 

Good  clusters  of  American  grapes  weigh  on  an  average  from  one-half 
to  three-fourths  pound,  while  extra-good  clusters  will  reach  a  pound 
and  a  half.     Clusters  have  been  reported  which  weighed  two  pounds. 

A  bushel  of  sweet  corn  ears,  "  in  the  milk,"  with  the  husks  which 
come  from  it,  weighs  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds. 
2  M 


530  COMPUTATION   TABLES 

There  are  about  5000  honey-bees  in  a  pound. 

Watermelons  are  usually  sorted  into  three  grades.  Of  the  largest 
size,  about  six  melons  are  placed  in  a  barrel.  Of  medium  size,  about 
eight  (four  melons  in  each  of  two  layers),  and  of  the  smallest  size,  ten 
to  twelve.  A  truck-load  of  melons  comprises  about  200  fair-sized 
fruits.     A  car-load  numbers  1000  to  1500. 

Coconuts  are  packed  for  shipment  in  bags  which  hold  100. 

"  Ekimis  "  branded  upon  boxes  of  Smyrna  figs  means  A.  No.  1, 
or  Superior  Selected.     ''  Eleme  "  means  Selected,  the  second  grade. 

A  box  12^1  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  holds  1  bu. 
A  box  191  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  holds  1  bbl, 
A  box  8|  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  holds  1  pk. 
A  box  6/^  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  holds  \  pk. 
A  box  4iV  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  holds  1  qt. 

To  find  the  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes,  shelled  corn,  etc.,  in  bins, 
divide  the  cubic  contents  in  inches  by  2747.7  (the  cubic  inches  in  a 
heaped  bushel).  If  the  corn  is  in  the  ear,  deduct  one-third  from  the 
result. 

The  cubic  contents  is  found  by  multiplying  together  length, 
breadth,  and  height  in  feet,  and  reducing  the  product  to  inches  by 
dividing  by  1728  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  cubic  foot) ;  or 
make  the  original  multiplication  in  inches  rather  than  in  feet. 

A  struck  bushel  (not  heaped)  contains  2150.4  cubic  inches.  See 
p.  528. 

If  the  sides  of  a  corn-crib  are  flaring,  it  is  customary  to  reckon 
the  width  as  half  the  sum  of  the  top  and  bottom  widths.  Of  course, 
much  will  depend  on  how  much  it  flares.  A  similar  method  may  be 
applied  to  apples,  potatoes,  and  roots  in  heaps. 

To  find  the  tons  of  hay  in  a  mow  or  stack,  divide  the  cubic  contents 
by  about  500,  if  the  hay  is  not  well  settled  ;  or  by  about  450  to  460, 
if  the  hay  is  well  packed. 

To  figure  the  cost  of  hay  by  the  ton,  multiply  the  number  of  pounds 
by  the  price  (in  dollars)  per  ton,  point  off  three  figures  at  the  right, 
and  divide  by  2  (point  off  more  figures  if  there  are  fractions  of  a 
dollar  in  the  price) :  — 


96lb.  X  Sll       ton  =    1.056      - 

-  2  =         .528  (52/(,  cents) 

96  "    X  S  11.30    "    =    1.0S48    - 

-  2  =         .54. 

1700  "  X  S13          "    =22.100      - 

-2  =  S11.05. 

2100  "   X  8 18         "    =  37.800      - 

-  2  =  $  18.90. 

3350  "  X  $10.80    "    =36.180      - 

-  2  =  $  18.09. 

PIPES,    TANKS,   AND    WELLS 


531 


At  $  5  per  ton,  divide  the  number  of  pounds  by  4 :  — 

96  1b.  at  $5:       96^4=       .24  cents. 
1350"     "    $5:  1350^4  =  $3.37. 

At  $  10  per  ton,  divide  the  number  of  pounds  by  2. 


Capacities   of   Pipes   and   Tanks 

Quantity  of  water  held  by  pipes  of  various  sizes 

Diameter  of  Contents  of  100  feet 

Bore  in  Length 

1^  gal. 

,>2 1.02 

]iy 4.08 

i>2 9.18 

2        16.32 

2J4 25.50 

3        36.72 

t        65.28 

f        102.00 

6        146.90 

Number  of  gallons  in  circular  tanks  and  wells 

To  find  the  contents  in  gallons  of  circular  tanks,  square  the  diameter 
in  feet,  multiply  by  the  depth,  and  then  multiply  by  5.875. 

GALLONS  WHEN  THE   DEPTH   IS 


jjia 

ete 

m- 

3  ft.   4  ft.    5  ft.    6  ft.    7  ft.    8  ft.    9  ft.    10  ft.    lift.    12  ft. 

ft. 
4 

282.00 

376.00 

470.00 

564.00 

658.00 

752.00 

846.00 

940.00 

10.34.00 

1128.00 

5 

440.63 

587.50 

734.38 

881.25 

1028.13 

1175.00 

1321.89 

1468.76 

1615.63 

1762.50 

6 

634.50 

846.04 

1057.50 

1269.00 

1480.50 

1692.00 

1903.50 

2115.00 

2326.50 

2538.00 

V 

863.63 

1151.50 

1439.38 

1727.25 

2015.13 

2303.00 

2590.89 

2878.76 

3166.63 

3454.50 

8 

1128.00 

1504.00 

1880.00 

2256.00 

2632.00 

3008.00 

3384.00 

3760.00 

4136.00 

4512.00 

y 

1427.63 

1903.50 

2379.38 

2855.26 

3331.13 

3807.04 

4282.89 

4758.76 

5234.63 

5710.52 

10 

1762.52 

2350.00 

2937.52 

3525.00 

4112.52 

4700.00 

5287.56 

5875.04 

6461.52 

7050.00 

11 

2132.63 

2843.50 

3554.38 

4265.26 

4976.12 

5687.00 

6397.89 

7108.76 

7819.63 

8530.52 

12 

2538.00 

3384.00 

4230.00 

5076.00 

5922.00 

6768.00 

7614.00 

8460.00 

9306.00 

10152.00 

Approximate  contents  of  cylinders 


Depth  Quantity 

X    3  in.  contains    1  gill. 
X    3  in.  contains    1  pint. 
X    6  in.  contains    1  quart. 
X    6  in.  contains    1  gallon. 
X  12  in.  contains    8  gallons. 
X  15  in.  contains  10  gallons. 


DiAM. 

IH 

in. 

3H 

in. 

^2 

in. 

7 

in. 

14 

in. 

14 

in. 

532 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


Number  of  gallons  in  squore-huilt  tanks 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  any  square  or  oblong  vessel,  multiply 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  contained  in  it,  by  7.4805 ;  or,  to  find  the 
contents  of  a  depth  not  given  in  this  table,  multiply  the  contents  of 
tank  one  foot  deep  by  the  required  depth  in  feet. 

For  other  comparable  figures,  see  page  531 ;  for  capacities  of  silos, 
pages  473  to  477 ;  for  capacities  of  reservoirs,  page  497.  Various  pipe 
figures  may  be  found  in  Chapters  XI  and  XXV. 


Size  of  Tank 


4  by 

5  by 

6  by 
6  by 
6  by 

6  by 

7  by 
7  by 
7  by 

7  by 

8  by 
8  by 
8  by 
8  by 

8  by 

9  by 
9  by 
9  by 
9  by 
9  by 

10  by 
10  by 
10  by 
10  by 
10  by 

10  by 

11  by 
11  by 
11  by 
11  by 
11  by 

11  by 

12  by 
12  by 
12  by 
12  by 
12  by 
12  by 
12  by 


4  feet . 

5  feet  . 

3  feet  . 

4  feet  . 

5  feet  . 

6  feet  . 

4  feet  . 

5  feet  . 

6  feet  . 

7  feet . 

4  feet  . 

5  feet  . 

6  feet  . 

7  feet  . 

8  feet  . 

5  feet  . 

6  feet  . 

7  feet  . 

8  feet  . 

9  feet  . 

5  feet  . 

6  feet  . 

7  feet  . 

8  feet  , 

9  feet  , 
10  feet  . 

6  feet  , 

7  feet  , 

8  feet  , 

9  feet  , 

10  feet 

11  feet 

6  feet 

7  feet 

8  feet 

9  feet 

10  feet 

11  feet 


1  Ft.  Deep 


12  feet 1077.19 


119.68 
187.01 
134.64 
179.53 
224.41 
269.29 
209.45 
261.81 
314.18 
366.54 
239.37 
299.22 
359.06 
418.90 
478.75 
336.62 
403.94 
471.26 
538.59 
605.92 
374.02 
448.83 
523.63 
598.44 
673.24 
748.05 
493.71 
575.99 
658.28 
740.56 
822.85 
905.14 
538.59 
628.36 
718.12 
807.89 
897.66 
987.42 


3  Ft.  Deep 


359.06 

561.03 

403.9 

538.5 

673.2 

807.8 

628.3 

785.4 

942.5 

1099.6 

718.1 

897.6 

1077.1 

1256.7 

1436.2 

1009.8 

1211.8 

1413.8 

1615.7 

1817.7 

1122.0 

1346.4 

1570.9 

1795.3 

2019.7 

2244.1 

1481.1 

1727.9 

1974.8 

2221.7 

2468.5 

2715.4 

1615.7 

1885.0 

2154.3 

2423.6 

2692.9 

2962.2 

3231.5 


4  Ft.  Deep 


478.75 
748.05 
538.5 
718.1 
897.6 
1077.1 
837.8 
1047.2 
1256.6 
1466.2 
957.4 
1196.8 
1436.2 
1675.6 
1915.0 
1346.4 
1615.7 
1885.0 
2154.3 
2423.6 
1496.1 
1795.3 
2094.5 
2393.7 
2692.9 
2992.2 
1974.8 
2303.9 
2633.1 
2962.2 
3291.4 
3620.5 
2154.3 
2513.4 
2872.5 
3231.5 
3590.6 
3949.6 
4308.7 


5  Ft.  Deep 


598.44 
935.06 
673.2 
897.6 
1122.0 
1346.4 
1047.2 
1309.0 
1570.8 
1832.7 
1196.8 
1496.1 
1795.3 
2094.5 
2393.7 
1683.1 
2019.7 
2356.3 
2692.9 
3029.6 
1870.1 
2244.1 
2618.1 
2992.2 
3366.2 
3740.2 
2468.5 
2879.9 
3291.4 
3702.8 
4114.2 
4525.7 
2692.9 
3141.8 
3590.6 
4039.4 
4488.3 
4937.1 
5385.9 


LEGAL     WEIGHTS   OF   THE  BUSHEL  633 

Legal  Weights  of  the  Bushel 

List  of  products  for  which  legal  weights  have  been  fixed  in  but  one  or 

two  states 

Apple  seeds,  forty  pounds  (Rhode  Island  and  Tennessee). 

Beggarweed  seed,  sixty-two  pounds  (Florida). 

Blackberries,  thirty-two  pounds   (Iowa)  ;   forty-eight  pounds  (Ten- 
nessee) ;  dried,  twenty-eight  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Blueberries,  forty-two  pounds  (Minnesota). 

Bromus  inermis,  fourteen  pounds  (North  Dakota). 

Cabbage,  fifty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Canary  seed,  sixty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Cantaloupe  melon,  fifty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Cherries,  forty  pounds  (Iowa)  ;   with  stems,  fifty-six  pounds  (Ten- 
nessee) ;    without  stems,  sixty-four  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Chestnuts,  fifty  pounds  (Tennessee)  ;  fifty-seven  pounds  (Virginia). 

Chufa,  fifty-four  pounds  (Florida). 

Cottonseed,  staple,  forty-two  pounds  (South  Carolina). 

Cucumbers,  forty-eight    pounds    (Missouri    and    Tennessee)  ;    fifty 
pounds  (Wisconsin). 

Currants,  forty  pounds  (Iowa  and  Minnesota). 

Feed,  fifty  pounds  (Massachusetts). 

Grapes,  forty  pounds  (Iowa)  ;  with  stems,  forty-eight  pounds  (Ten- 
nessee) ;   without  stems,  sixty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Guavas,  fifty-four  pounds  (Florida). 

Hickory  nuts,  fifty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Hominy,  sixty  pounds  (Ohio)  ;   sixty-two  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Horseradish,   fifty   pounds    (Tennessee). 

Italian  rye-grass  seed,  twenty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Johnson-grass,  twenty-eight  pounds  (Arkansas). 

Kafir,    fifty-six    pounds    (Kansas). 

Kale,    thirty    pounds    (Tennessee). 

Land-plaster,    100   pounds    (Tennessee).     See  page  540. 

Meal,   forty-six   pounds   (Alabama)  ;    unbolted,   forty-eight    pounds 
(Alabama) . 

Middlings,  fine,  forty  pounds    (Indiana)  ;   coarse  middhngs,  thirty 
pounds  (Indiana). 

[Continued  on  page  540] 


534 


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LEGAL    WEIGHTS    OF    THE   BUSHEL 


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COMPUTATION   TABLES 


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LEGAL    WEIGHTS   OF   THE  BUSHEL 


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COMPUTATION   TABLES 


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LEGAL    WEIGHTS   OF   THE  BUSHEL 


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640  COMPUTATION   TABLES 

[Continued  from  page  533] 

Millet,  Japanese  barnyard,  thirty-five  pounds  (Massachusetts). 

Mustard,  thirty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Plums,  forty  pounds  (Florida)  ;    sixty-four  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Plums,  dried,  twenty-eight  pounds  (Michigan). 

Popcorn,  seventy  pounds  (Indiana  and  Tennessee)  ;  in  the  ear, 
forty-two  pounds   (Ohio). 

Prunes,  dried,  twenty-eight  pounds  (Idaho)  ;  green,  forty-five 
pounds  (Idaho). 

Quinces,  forty-eight  pounds  (Florida,  Iowa,  and  Tennessee). 

Rape  seed,  fifty  pounds  (Wisconsin). 

Raspberries,  thirty-two  pounds  (Kansas)  ;  forty-eight  pounds  (Ten- 
nessee). 

Rhubarb,  fifty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Sage,  four  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Salads,  thirty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Sand,  130  pounds  (Iowa). 

Spelt  or  Spiltz,  forty  pounds  (North  Dakota)  ;  forty-five  pounds 
(South  Dakota). 

Spinach,    thirty   pounds    (Tennessee). 

Strawberries,  thirty-two  pounds  (Iowa)  ;  forty-eight  pounds  (Ten- 
nessee). 

Sugar-cane  seed,  fifty-seven  pounds  (New  Jersey). 

Velvet-grass  seed,  seven  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Walnuts,  fifty  pounds  (Tennessee). 

Other  articles. 

One  bushel  of  house  ashes  (wood)  is  calculated  to  weigh  forty-eight 
pounds;  ground  gypsum,  seventy  pounds  (see  p.  533,  under  land- 
plaster)  ;   sand,  1222  pounds. 

For  lime,  see  pp.  78,  536 ;  cement,  pp.  504,  505. 

Legal  weights  of  seeds  and  grains  in  Canada. 

Section  90  of  the  Inspection  and  Sale  Act  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  dealing  with  the  legal  weights 
of  farm  products,  reads  as  follows  :  — 

In  contracts  for  the  sale  and  delivery  of  any  of  the  undermentioned 
articles  a  bushel  shall  be  determined  by  weighing,  unless  a  bushel  by 


CANADIAN   WEIGHTS  541 

measure  is  specially  agreed  upon,  and  the  weight  equivalent  to  a  bushel 
shall,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  be  as  follows  :  — 

lb. 

Barley 48 

Buckwheat 48 

Flaxseed 56 

Indian  corn 56 

Oats 34 

Pease 60 

Rye 56 

Wheat 60 

Section  337  reads  as  follows  :  — 

In  contracts  for  the  sale  and  delivery  of  any  of  the  undermentioned 

articles,  the  bushel  shall  be  determined  by  weighing,  unless  a  bushel 

by  measure  is  specially  agreed  upon  and  the  weight  equivalent  to  a 

bushel  shall  be  as  follows  :  — 

lb. 

Beans 60 

Beets 60 

Blue-grass  seed        14 

Carrots 60 

Castor-beans 40 

Clover  seed 60 

Hemp  seed 44 

Malt 36 

Onions 50 

Parsnips 60 

Potatoes 60 

Timothy  seed 48 

Turnips 60 

In  the  province  of  Quebec,  when  potatoes  are  sold  or  offered  for 
sale  by  the  bag,  the  bag  shall  contain  at  least  eighty  pounds. 


Government  Townships 

The  word  "  town  "  has  a  variety  of  meanings.  It  is  commonly 
loosely  used  to  designate  merely  a  settlement  or  a  community.  In 
New  England,  however,  it  is  the  primary  administrative  division 
It  is  there  very  irregular  in  shape  and  size,  following  the  lines  of 
contour  and  of  early  settlement.  In  New  England,  outside  of 
Rhode  Island,  a  township  unit  was  essentially  an  ecclesiastical  unit. 
In  Rhode  Island,  the  township  government  was  separated  from 
church  control.     In  the  South,  the  county  came  to  be  the  primary 


542 


COMPUTATION   TABLES 


political  unit  in  most  cases,  and  there  is  no  highly  developed  town- 
ship system. 

The  New  England  type  of  town  spread  westward  to  New  York,  al- 
though the  full  town-meeting  form  of  go\'ornment  did  not  follow  ;  the 
townships  remained  irregular  and  followed  no  system  of  territorial 
division.  When  the  new  pubUc  domains  began  to  be  surveyed  by 
the  federal  government,  a  regular  system  of  townships,  or  terri- 
torial divisions,  was  laid  out.  These  townships  are  right-angled, 
being  six  miles  on  a  side  and  containing  36  square  miles.  They  are 
determined  and  also  divided  by  the  intersection  of  meridians  or 
range-lines  running  north  and  south,  and  by  parallels  or  town-lines 
running  east  and  west.  The  township  is  subdivided  into  36  square 
miles,  each  of  these  square  miles  being  known  as  a  "  section  "  and 

containing  640  acres.     The  sections 

are  numbered  consecutively  from 
1  to  36,  beginning  at  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  township  and  running 
directly  across  to  the  northwest 
corner,  then  back  again  to  the  east 
and  back  to  the  west,  and  so  on 
back  and  forth  until  the  36th  sec- 
tion stands  at  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  township,  as  showTi  in  the 
diagram.  In  each  township,  section 
16  is  set  aside  for  school  purposes. 
The  sections  are  themselves  divided 
into  quarter-sections,  each  containing  160  acres.  These  quarter-sec- 
tions are  again  divided  into  fours,  of  40  acres  each;  and  these  40 
acres  are  the  smallest  divisions  recognized  in  government  surveys. 

The  location  of  any  piece  of  land  is  determined  by  the  section 
number  and  by  the  half-section  or  quarter-section  in  which  it  is  lo- 
cated. The  township  itself  is  located  by  its  town-line  and  its  range. 
That  is  to  say,  a  township  in  any  state  might  be  number  10  south 
of  the  base-line  that  was  established  by  the  goverment,  and  range 
9  west  of  some  one  of  the  principal  meridians  fixed  by  the  govern- 
ment. A  particular  quarter-section  in  this  township  might  be  the 
southwest  quarter  of  section  number  27  in  township  10  south  and 
range  9  west  of  the  sixth  principal  meridian. 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Specimens  for  Cabinets  or  Exhi- 
bition.    Perfumery.     Labels 

Every  good  farm  establishment  should  have  a  room  or  a  cabinet 
in  which  the  museum  materials  of  the  particular  farm  are  collected, 
—  soils,  minerals,  plants,  insects,  curiosities,  and  the  like. 

Collecting  and  Storing  Samples  of  Soil  (Fippin) 

The  farmer  should  know  his  soil.  The  collecting  of  soils  and 
their  preservation  and  study  has  been  a  source  of  much  interest  to 
some  persons,  —  quite  as  much  as  the  collecting  of  seeds,  plants,  or 
souvenirs.  To  secure  samples  that  fairly  represent  a  particular  soil- 
formation  or  soil-region  requires  much  care  in  selection.  Soils  usually 
vary  greatly  from  point  to  point.  They  also  vary  at  different  depths. 
Usually  the  top  soil  is  more  rich  in  organic  matter  than  the  subsoil. 
It  is  therefore  best  to  take  small  samples  from  a  number  of  points 
in  an  area  of  a  few  square  rods  and  mix  them  together,  and  preserve 
the  desired  sample  from  this  composite  lot. 

Some  arbitrary  depth  must  be  chosen,  and  one  foot  is  best  on  the 
average.  Since  the  subsoil  is  also  of  great  importance,  it  is  desirable 
to  have  a  sample  taken  from  one  to  two  feet  in  the  same  holes  as  the 
top  soil.  A  common  wood  auger  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter 
with  a  handle  sufficient  to  make  a  total  length  of  thirty-six,  with  an 
eight-inch  pipe  cross  bar  at  the  top,  is  most  convenient  for  collecting 
samples  in  soils  that  are  not  excessively  stony.  The  stem  may  be 
made  in  sections,  connecting  by  means  of  milled  threads. 

Before  being  finally  stored,  the  soil  samples  should  b3  thoroughly 
dried  on  a  piece  of  paper  in  the  air.  Collection  should  not  be  made 
when  the  soil  is  so  wet  as  to  puddle,  and  the  sample  would  preferably 
not  be  pulverized  after  drying. 

543 


544  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

The  amount  of  the  sample  must  depend  on  the  object  of  the  work. 
For  general  stud}'  and  analysis,  one  quart  is  usually  abundant,  and 
one  pint  is  often  adequate  for  chemical  and  physical  analysis.  For 
private  collections,  even  smaller  samples  put  up  in  four-  or  six-ounce 
vials  of  five  or  six  inches  in  length,  straight  sides,  and  metal  screw-top, 
are  very  convenient.  Regular  specimen-jars  holding  about  one-third 
of  a  pint  or  more  and  with  cork  in  the  bottom  are  excellent  for  small 
samples.  For  larger  samples,  screw-top  glass  fruit-jars  are  usually 
the  most  convenient  form  of  storage  vessel. 

For  shipping  samples,  a  stout  canvas  bag  closely  woven  and  simply 
labeled  on  a  tag  is  most  convenient,  and  several  such  samples  may  be 
inclosed  in  a  large  bag  of  the  same  material. 

Samples  of  Seeds  and  Grains 

Every  farmer  should  have  samples  in  his  study  or  elsewhere  of  the 
common  commercial  grades  of  wheat,  oats,  and  other  grains,  and  speci- 
mens of  the  seeds  of  the  leading  grasses  and  the  most  frequent  weeds. 

He  can  secure  the  weed  seeds  from  the  plants  themselves  ;  or  in  some 
cases  the  Experiment  Station  will  aid  him  to  secure  them.  Whenever 
a  pernicious  weed  appears  on  the  plantation,  seeds  should  be  saved  of 
it.  The  farmer  should  determine  how  it  was  introduced,  whether 
with  grain  or  with  grass  seed  ;  he  will  then  be  on  the  guard  for  future 
invasion.  He  should  have  a  good  hand  lens  with  which  to  examine 
all  grass  seed  and  clover  seed  that  he  purchases. 

He  should  have  samples  of  pure  grass  seed,  the  dififerent  kinds  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  and  similar  crops. 

Samples  of  the  different  grades  of  wheat  and  other  grains,  of  the 
leading  varieties,  and  of  shrunken  or  injured  grains,  would  be  very 
useful  to  persons  who  are  engaged  in  the  growing  of  grain  or  in  the 
handling  of  it.  They  will  serve  as  standards.  In  some  of  the  states, 
the  experiment  stations  supply  such  seeds  ;  if  they  do  not  supply  them, 
they  can  put  the  farmer  in  touch  with  the  ways  of  securing  them. 

All  seeds  should  be  placed  in  tight  bottles  and  be  thoroughly  dried 
before  being  put  away.  In  bottles  they  are  easy  of  examination,  and 
they  are  also  free  from  weevils  and  other  insects.  If  they  should  become 
affected  with  insects,  the  pests  may  be  destroyed  by  pouring  a  little 
bisulfid  of  carbon  into  the  bottle  and  quickly  corking  it  up  tight. 


HERBARIUM  545 

For  samples  of  corn,  buckwheat,  rye,  rice,  and  other  commercial 
grains,  it  is  well  to  use  one  of  the  small  fruit-jars.  The  weed  seeds 
may  be  put  up  in  vials  with  wide  necks. 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Plants  for  Herbaria 

Collect  samples  of  all  parts  of  the  plant,  —  lower  and  upper  leaves, 
stem,  flowers,  fruit,  and  in  most  cases  roots.  In  small  species,  those 
two  feet  high  or  less,  the  whole  plant  should  be  taken.  Of  larger 
plants,  take  parts  about  a  foot  long.  Press  the  plants  between 
papers  or  '^  driers."  These  driers  may  be  any  thick  porous  paper, 
as  blotting-paper  or  carpet-paper,  or,  for  plants  that  are  not  succu- 
lent or  very  juicy,  newspapers  in  several  thicknesses  may  be  used. 
It  is  best  to  place  the  specimens  in  sheets  of  thin  paper  —  grocer's 
tea  paper  is  good  —  and  place  these  sheets  between  the  driers. 
Many  specimens  can  be  placed  in  a  pile.  On  top  of  the  pile  place 
a  short  board  and  a  weight  of  thirty  or  forty  pounds,  or  a  lighter 
weight  if  the  pile  is  small  and  the  plants  are  soft.  Change  the  driers 
every  day.  The  plants  are  dry  when  they  become  brittle,  and  when 
no  moisture  can  be  felt  by  the  fingers.  Some  plants  will  dry  in  two 
or  three  days,  while  others  require  as  many  weeks.  If  the  pressing  is 
properly  done,  the  specimens  will  come  out  smooth  and  flat  and  the 
leaves  will  usually  be  green,  although  some  plants  always  turn  black 
in  drying. 

Specimens  are  usually  mounted  on  single  sheets  of  white  paper  of  the 
stiffness  of  very  heavy  writing  paper  or  thin  bristol-board.  The 
standard  size  of  sheet  is  11^  by  16|  inches.  The  plants  may  be 
pasted  down  permanently  and  entirely  to  the  sheet,  or  they  may  be 
held  on  by  strips  of  gummed  paper.  In  the  former  case,  Denison's 
fish-glue  is  a  good  gum  to  use.  Only  one  species  or  variety  should 
be  placed  on  a  sheet.  Specimens  that  are  taller  than  the  length  of 
a  sheet  should  be  doubled  over  when  they  are  pressed.  The  species 
of  a  genus  are  collected  into  a  genus  cover.  This  cover  is  a  folded  sheet 
of  heavy  manila  or  other  firm  paper,  and  the  standard  size,  when  folded, 
is  12  by  16j  inches.  On  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  this  cover 
the  name  of  the  genus  is  written.  A  label  should  accompany  each 
specimen  upon  the  separate  sheets,  recording  the  name,  date  of  col- 
lecting, name  of  the  collector,  and  any  notes  that  may  be  of  interest, 
2n 


546  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

The  specimens  are  now  ready  to  be  filed  away  on  shelves  in  a  horizon- 
tal position.  If  insects  attack  the  specimens,  they  may  be  destroyed 
by  fumes  of  bisulfid  of  carbon  (see  page  293)  or  chloroform.  The 
bisLilfid  treatment  is  probably  the  best  yet  devised,  particularly  for 
large  herbaria.  In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  specimens  in 
a  tight  box  and  then  insert  the  liquid.  Lumps  of  naphthalin  placed 
in  the  cabinet  are  useful  in  keeping  away  insects. 

Various  poisons  have  been  used  on  herbarium  plants.  At  one  time, 
the  Gray  Herbarium  used  an  arsenic  solution,  but  this  proved  to  be 
injurious  to  curators.  Three  corrosive  sublimate  (bichloride  of  mer- 
cury) recipes  are  as  follows :  — 

1.  Place  as  much  corrosive  sublimate  in  alcohol  as  the  liquid  will 
dissolve.  Apply  with  a  brush,  or  dip  the  plants  before  they  are 
mounted  and  dry  them  between  sheets.      A  common  method. 

2.  Dissolve  If  ounces  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  one  pint  of  alcohol  ; 
add  2^  fluid  drams  of  carbolic  acid,  and  apply  with  a  paint  brush. 

3.  One  pound  of  corrosive  sublimate,  one  pound  of  carbolic  acid,  to 
4  gallons  of  wood  alcohol. 

Preserving,  Printing,  and  Imitating  Flowers  and  Other  Parts  of  Plants 

To  Preserve  the  Color  of  Dried  Flowers.  —  1.  Immerse  the 
stem  of  the  fresh  specimen  in  a  solution  of  32  parts  by  weight  of  alum, 
4  of  niter,  and  186  of  water  for  two  or  three  days  until  the  liquid  is 
thoroughly  absorbed,  and  then  press  in  the  ordinary  way,  except  that 
dry  sand  is  sifted  over  the  specimen  and  the  packet  submitted  to  the 
action  of  gentle  heat  for  twenty-four  hours. 

2.  Make  a  varnish  composed  of  20  parts  of  powdered  copal  and  500 
parts  of  ether,  powdered  glass  or  sand  being  used  to  make  the  copal 
dissolve  more  readily.  Into  this  solution  the  plants  are  carefully 
dipped  ;  then  they  are  allowed  to  dry  for  ten  minutes,  and  the  same 
process  is  repeated  four  or  five  times  in  succession. 

3.  Plants  may  also  be  plunged  in  a  boiling  solution  of  1  part  of 
salicylic  acid  and  600  of  alcohol,  and  then  dried  in  bibulous  paper.  But 
this  should  be  done  very  rapidly,  violet  flowers  especially  being  decolor- 
ized by  more  than  an  instantaneous  immersion. 

4.  Red  flowers  which  have  changed  to  a  purplish  tint  in  drying  may 
have  their  color  restored  by  laying  them  on  a  piece  of  moistened  paper 


PRESERVING    FLOWERS  547 

with  dilute  nitric  acid  (one  part  to  ten  or  twelve  parts  of  water),  and 
then  submitting  them  to  moderate  pressure  for  a  few  seconds  ;  but  the 
solution  must  not  touch  the  green  leaves,  as  they  are  decolorized  by  it. 
5.  With  sulfur  (Quin).  —  Procure  a  chest  about  three  or  four  feet 
square  with  a  small  opening  in  the  under  part  of  one  side,  to  be 
closed  by  a  bar,  through  which  the  basin  containing  brimstone  must 
be  put  into  the  chest  ;  this  opening  must  be  covered  inside  with  per- 
forated tin,  in  order  to  prevent  those  flowers  which  hang  immediately 
over  the  basin  from  being  spoiled.  Paper  the  inside  to  render  it  air- 
tight. When  the  chest  is  ready  for  use,  nail  small  laths  on  two  opposite 
sides  of  the  interior,  at  a  distance  of  about  six  inches  apart,  and  on 
these  lay  thin  round  sticks  upon  which  to  arrange  the  flowers  ;  these 
should  not  be  close  together,  or  the  vapor  will  not  circulate  freely 
through  the  vacant  spaces  around  the  flowers.  When  the  chest  is  suffi- 
ciently full  of  flowers,  close  it  carefully,  place  a  damp  cloth  on  the  sides 
of  the  lid,  and  some  heavy  stones  upon  the  top  of  it  ;  then  take  small 
pieces  of  brimstone,  put  them  in  a  small,  flat  basin,  kindle,  and  put 
through  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  chest  and  shut  the  bar. 
Leave  the  chest  undisturbed  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  time 
it  must  be  opened,  and  if  the  flowers  be  sufficiently  smoked,  they  will 
appear  white,  if  not,  they  must  be  smoked  again.  When  sufficiently 
smoked,  take  the  flowers  out  carefully  and  hang  them  up  in  a  dry,  airy 
place  in  the  shade,  and  in  a  few  days  or  even  hours  they  will  recover 
their  natural  color,  except  being  only  a  shade  paler. 

To  give  them  a  very  bright  and  shining  color,  plunge  them  into  a 
mixture  of  ten  parts  of  cold  water  and  one  of  good  nitric  acid  ;  drain  off 
the  liquid,  and  hang  them  up  again  the  same  as  before.  The  best 
flowers  for  this  process  are  asters,  roses,  fuchsias  (single  ones),  spireas 
(red-flowered  kinds,  such  as  Japonica,  Douglasi,  etc.),  ranunculus,  del- 
phiniums, cytisus,  etc.  The  roses  should  be  quite  open,  but  not  too 
fully  blown. 

6.  In  sand  (Quin).  —  Dry  the  plants  in  clean  silver  sand,  free  from 
organic  matter  (made  so  by  repeated  washing,  until  the  sand  ceases 
to  discolor  the  water).  Heat  the  sand  rather  hot,  and  mix  with  it  by 
constant  stirring  a  small  piece  of  wax  candle,  which  prevents  the 
sand  from  adhering  to  the  flowers.  Have  a  box  not  higher  than  three 
inches,  but  as  broad  as  possible  ;  this  box  should  have  instead  of  a 
bottom  a  narrow-meshed  iron-wire  net  at  a  distance  of  three-fourths 


548  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

inch  from  where  the  bottom  should  be.  Place  the  box  on  a  board  and 
fill  with  sand  till  the  net  is  just  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  sand  ;  upon 
this  layer  of  sand,  place  a  layer  of  flowers,  on  that  a  layer  of  sand, 
then  flowers,  and  so  on  ;  the  layers  of  sand  should  vary  in  thickness 
according  to  the  kind  of  flowers,  from  one-eighth  to  one-fourth  inch. 

When  the  box  contains  about  three  layers  of  flowers,  it  must  be 
removed  to  a  v^ery  sunny  dry  place,  the  best  being  close  under  the  glass 
in  an  empty  greenhouse,  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of  the  sun.  After 
a  week,  if  the  weather  is  sunny  and  dry,  the  flowers  will  be  perfectly 
dried  ;  then  the  box  is  lifted  a  little,  the  sand  falls  gently  through  the 
iron  net,  and  the  flowers  remain  in  their  position  over  the  net  without 
pny  disturbance  whatever. 

They  should  then  be  taken  out  carefully  and  kept  in  a  dry  and,  if 
possible,  dark  place,  where  no  sun  can  reach  them,  and  afterwards 
chey  will  keep  very  well  for  many  years. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  flowers  are  cut  in  dry  weather,  and 
that  while  lying  in  the  sand  no  part  of  a  flower  shall  touch  another  part, 
as  this  always  spoils  the  color  and  causes  decay.  Sand  should  be 
filled  in  between  all  the  parts  of  the  flower  ;  therefore  it  is  necessary 
to  insert  the  double  flowers  in  an  erect  position,  in  order  to  fill  the  sand 
between  the  petals,  while  most  of  the  single  flowers  must  be  put  in 
with  the  stalks  upwards. 

Printing  Plants.  —  1.  First,  lightly  oil  one  side  of  paper,  then 
fold  in  four,  so  that  the  oil  may  filter  through  the  pores,  and  the  plant 
may  not  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  liquid.  The  plant  is  placed 
between  the  leaves  of  the  second  folding,  and  in  this  position  pressed 
(through  other  paper)  all  over  with  the  hand,  so  as  to  make  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  to  adhere  to  its  surface.  Then  it  is  taken  out  and 
placed  between  two  sheets  of  white  paper  for  two  impressions,  and 
the  plant  is  pressed  as  before.  Sprinkle  over  the  invisible  image 
remaining  on  the  paper  a  quantity  of  black  lead  or  charcoal,  and  dis- 
tribute it  in  all  directions  ;  the  image  then  appears  in  all  its  parts. 
With  an  assortment  of  colors  the  natural  colors  of  plants  may  be 
reproduced.  To  obtain  fixity,  rosin  is  previously  added  to  the  black 
lead  in  equal  parts.     Expose  to  heat  sufficient  to  melt  the  rosin. 

2.  The  best  paper  to  use  is  ordinary  wove  paper,  without  water- 
marks; if  it  can  l)e  afforded,  use  thin  drawing-paper.  First  select  the 
leaves,  then  carefully  press  and  dry  them.     If  they  be  placed  in  a  plant 


LEAF-PRINTS    AND    THE    LIKE  549 

press,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  too  great  pressure  on  the  specimens 
at  first,  or  they  will  be  spoiled  for  printing.  An  old  book  is  the  best  for 
drying  the  samples  to  be  used.  Secure  printers'  or  proof  ink,  and  a 
small  leather  dabber  ;  work  a  bit  of  ink  about  the  size  of  a  pea  on  a 
small  piece  of  slate  or  glass,  with  the  dabber,  until  it  is  perfectly  smooth. 
A  drop  or  two  of  linseed  oil  will  assist  the  operation.  Then  give  the 
leaf  a  thin  coating,  being  careful  to  spread  it  equally  ;  now  lay  the 
leaf  ink  downwards  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  place  it  between  the  leaves 
of  an  old  book,  which  must  then  be  subjected  to  a  moderate  pressure 
in  a  copying-press,  or  passed  between  the  rollers  of  a  wringing-machine. 
Impressions  can  be  taken  with  greater  rapidity  by  laying  the  book  on 
the  floor  and  standing  upon  it  for  a  few  seconds.  Soft  book-paper  is 
the  best.  Previous  to  using  it,  place  a  few  sheets  between  damp  blot- 
ting-paper, which  causes  it  to  take  the  ink  still  more  readily.  At  first 
you  will  find  that  you  lay  on  too  much  ink.  If  the  impression  is  too 
black,  use  the  leaf  again.  If  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  is  too  thick,  it 
must  be  shaved  down  with  a  sharp  knife. 

3.  Leaf-prints  (Engle).  —  1.  A  small  ink-roller,  such  as  printers  use 
for  inking  type.  2.  A  quantity  of  printers'  green  ink.  3.  A  pane  of 
stout  window-glass  (the  larger  the  better)  fastened  securely  to  an  evenly 
planed  board  twice  the  size  of  the  glass.  A  small  quantity  of  the  ink 
is  put  on  the  glass  and  spread  with  a  knife,  after  which  it  is  distributed 
evenly  by  going  over  in  all  directions  with  the  ink-roller.  When  this 
has  been  carefully  done,  the  leaf  to  be  copied  is  laid  on  a  piece  of  waste 
paper  and  inked  by  applying  the  roller  once  or  twice  with  moderate 
pressure.  This  leaves  a  film  of  ink  on  the  veins  and  network  of  the 
leaf,  and  by  placing  it  on  a  piece  of  blank  paper  and  applying  con- 
siderable pressure  for  a  few  moments  the  work  is  done,  and  when  the 
leaf  is  lifted  from  the  paper,  the  impress  remains  with  all  its  delicate 
tracerv,  faithful  in  color  and  outline  to  the  original. 

To  make  the  ink  of  proper  consistency,  add  several  drops  of 
balsam  copaiba  to  a  salt-spoonful  of  ink.  If  the  leaf  sticks,  the  ink  is 
too  thick. 

Skeletonizing  Plants.  —  1.  By  maceration.  Place  the  leaves  in 
water,  and  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  same  water  for  from  three 
to  four  months,  until  the  soft  matter  decays,  and  the  stem  may  be  taken 
in  the  hand  and  the  refuse  shaken  away.  There  remains  behind  a 
network  or  skeleton  of  the  original  object,  which  can  be  bleached  with 


550  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

a  little  lime.  Leaves  and  pods  may  both  be  treated  satisfactorily  in  this 
manner.  The  pod  of  the  "  Jimson  weed  "  or  Datura  Stramonium  is  a 
favorite  for  this  purpose. 

2.  By  chemicals.  —  Chloride  of  lime,  I  pound  ;  washing  soda, 
^  pound.  Put  the  soda  into  H  pints  boiling  water  (rain-water  is 
best)  and  let  it  thorouglily  dissolve.  Put  the  chloride  of  lime  in  a 
large  pitcher,  and  add  same  quantity  of  cold  water.  Stir  well  and 
cover  closely  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  chlorine.  When  the  soda- 
water  is  cool,  pour  it  on  the  chloride  of  lime,  stir  well  together  and 
cover  tightly,  leaving  it  for  an  hour  or  more.  Then  pour  off  very 
gently  the  clear  liquid,  which  must  be  bottled  tightly. 

This  solution  will  remove  fruit-stains  from  white  goods,  and  will 
bleach  any  vegetable  substances.  When  used  for  cotton  or  linen,  it 
must  be  considerably  diluted,  and  the  goods  well  rinsed  afterwards. 

Waterproof  Paper  for  Artificial  Flowers.  —  Waterproof 
paper,  transparent  and  impervious  to  grease,  is  obtained  by  soaking 
good  paper  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  shellac  and  borax.  It  resembles 
parchment  paper  in  some  respects.  If  the  aqueous  solution  be  colored 
with  aniline  colors,  very  handsome  paper,  of  use  for  artificial  flowers, 
is  prepared.     Prepared  paraffin  paper  is  now  much  used. 

To  keep  Flowers  Fresh.  —  If  cut  flowers  are  not  needed  im- 
mediately, wet  them  and  then  wrap  them  in  paper  and  place  in  a  tight 
box  in  a  cool  place.     Keep  as  cool  as  possible  without  freezing. 

The  disagreeable  odor  which  comes  from  flowers  in  vases  is  due  to 
the  decay  of  the  leaves  and  stems  in  the  water.  Therefore  remove  all 
the  lower  leaves  before  putting  flowers  in  vases. 

Flowers  that  have  stood  in  a  vase  for  a  day  or  so  can  be  greatly 
refreshed  if  taken  from  the  vase  at  night,  thoroughly  sprinkled  and 
wrapped,  stems,  blossoms,  and  all,  as  closely  as  possible  in  a  soaked 
cloth  and  laid  aside  until  the  morning.  They  will  be  much  fresher  than 
if  they  had  been  left  in  their  vases,  yet  will  not  have  bloomed  out  so 
much.  Before  thus  laying  them  aside,  and  again  in  the  morning,  a  bit 
of  each  stem  should  be  cut  off,  as  the  end  soon  hardens.  This  ought  also 
to  be  done  once  or  twice  a  day,  even  if  the  flowers  are  kept  constantly 
in  their  vases.  Roses  that  have  drooped  before  their  time  —  as, 
for  example,  when  worn  on  the  dress  —  may  be  revived  if  the  stems, 
after  being  thus  cut,  are  placed  for  ten  minutes  in  almost  boiling 
water  and  then  removed  to  cold  water. 


INSECTS  —  PERFUMERY  551 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

Flying  insects  are  caught  in  a  net  made  of  mosquito-bar,  or  cheese- 
cloth after  the  fashion  of  the  minnow-net.  The  material  is  made  into 
a  bag  about  a  yard  deep,  and  about  a  foot  in  width  at  the  top.  The 
opening  is  fastened  upon  a  wire  hoop,  which  is  secured  to  a  pole  — 
as  a  broomstick.  Insects  are  killed  by  placing  them  in  a  "  cyanide- 
bottle."  This  is  prepared  by  placing  two  or  three  lumps  of  cyanide 
of  potassium  the  size  of  a  quail's  eg-^  in  a  wide-mouthed  glass  bottle, 
covering  the  lumps  with  a  layer  of  fine  sawdust  held  in  place  by  snugly 
fitted  pieces  of  pasteboard.  The  insects  are  quickly  killed  by  the  fumes 
of  the  poison.  Keep  the  bottle  corked.  The  cyanide  is  very  poisonous, 
and  the  fumes  should  not  be  inhaled.  Bugs  and  beetles,  etc.,  may  be 
pinned  and  mounted  as  soon  as  they  are  dead.  It  is  customary  to  pin 
beetles  through  the  right  wing-cover,  and  bugs  —  as  squash-bugs  — 
through  the  triangular  space  between  the  wings.  Butterflies  and 
moths  should  have  the  wings  carefully  spread.  This  is  done  by  placing 
on  a  "  setting-board."  This  apparatus  is  a  little  trough  with  a  crack 
at  the  bottom.  The  sides  of  the  trough  are  made  of  thin  bits  of 
board,  three  or  four  inches  wide  and  a  foot  or  more  long.  These  sides 
have  very  little  slant.  The  crack  in  the  bottom  of  the  trough  is  left 
about  a  half-inch  wide,  and  it  is  covered  beneath  with  a  strip  of  cork. 
The  body  of  the  insect  is  now  placed  lengthwise  the  crack,  a  pin  is 
thrust  through  the  thorax  or  middle  division  of  the  insect,  into  the 
cork,  and  the  wings  are  laid  out  on  the  sides  of  the  trough.  The 
wings  are  held  in  place  by  strips  of  cardboard  or  mica  pinned  over 
them.  Take  care  not  to  stick  the  pins  through  the  wings.  In  about 
two  weeks  the  insects  will  be  dry  and  stiff. 

Insects  must  be  kept  in  tight  boxes  to  keep  other  insects  from  de- 
vouring them.  Cigar-boxes  are  good.  Tight  boxes  with  glass  covers 
are  generally  used  by  collectors.  Place  sheets  of  cork  in  the  bottom 
of  the  box  to  receive  the  pins.  If  insects  attack  the  specimens,  expose 
them  in  a  tight  box  to  vapors  of  bisulfid  of  carbon  or  benzine. 

Larvae,  and  some  other  soft  bodies,  may  be  preserved  in  95  per 

cent  alcohol. 

Making  Perfumery  at  Home 

Permanent  Attar  or  Otto  of  Roses  (Ellwanger) .  —  The  roses 
employed   should    be    just   blown,   of    the   sweetest-smelling   kinds, 


652  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

gathered  in  as  dry  a  state  as  possible.  After  each  gathering,  spread 
out  the  petals  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  leave  until  free  from  mois- 
ture ;  then  place  a  layer  of  petals  in  a  jar,  sprinkling  with  coarse 
salt ;  then  another  layer  of  coarse  salt,  alternating  until  the  jar  is 
full.  Leave  for  a  few  days,  or  until  a  broth  is  formed ;  then  in- 
corporate thoroughly  and  add  more  petals  and  salt,  mixing  thor- 
oughly daily  for  a  week,  when  fragrant  gums  and  spices  should  be 
added,  such  as  benzoin,  storax,  cassia-buds,  cinnamon,  cloves,  car- 
damon,  and  vanilla-bean.  Mix  again  and  leave  for  a  few  days, 
when  add  essential  oil  of  jasmine,  violet  tuberose,  and  attar  of 
roses,  together  with  a  hint  of  ambergris  or  musk,  in  mixture  with  the 
flower  ottos,  to  fix  the  odor.  Spices,  such  as  cloves,  should  be  spar- 
ingly used. 

Perfume-jar.  —  1.  One  pound  of  dried  rose-petals  bought  at  a 
drug-store,  4  ounces  of  salt,  and  2  ounces  of  saltpeter,  on  which  put 
8  drops  of  essence  of  ambergris,  6  drops  of  essence  of  lemon,  4  drops 
of  oil  of  cloves,  4  drops  of  oil  of  lavender,  and  2  drops  of  essence  of 
bergamot. 

2.  One-half  pound  of  common  salt,  \  pound  saltpeter,  \  ounce 
storax,  one-half  dozen  cloves,  a  handful  of  dried  bay-leaves,  and  an- 
other handful  of  dried  lavender-flowers.  This  basis  will  last  for  years, 
and  petals  of  roses  and  other  fragrant  flowers  gathered  on  dry  days 
may  be  added  annually,  or  powered  benzoin,  chips  of  sandalwood, 
cinnamon,  orris-root,  or  musk  may  be  added. 

Lavender-b.a-G.  —  One-half  pound  lavender-flowers,  one-half  ounce 
dried  thyme  and  mint,  one-fourth  ounce  ground  cloves  and  caraway, 
one  ounce  common  salt.  Tie  up  in  a  linen  bag,  which  is  hung  in  a 
wardrobe. 

Orris-root  is  a  good  medium  in  which  to  place  delicate  perfumes  for 
perfumery  bags. 

The  Preservation  of  Fruits  for  Exhibition  Purposes 

Six  Canadian  recipes  (Frank  T.  Shutt,  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa, 
1911).     Specimens  of  course  not  edible. 

In  the  preparation  of  these  fluids,  it  is  desirable  to  employ  distilled 
water,  usually  obtainable  from  druggists  at  a  small  cost.  The  alcohol 
used  in  these  formulae  may  be  the  ordinary  spirits  of  wine. 


PRESERVATIVE   FLUIDS  653 


Fluid  No.  1.  —  Formaldehyde 

Formaldehyde  (formalin) 1  part 

Alcohol 5  parts 

Water,  to  make 50  parts 

To  prepare  one  gallon  of  the  fluid  3§  ounces  of  formaldehyde  and 
16  ounces  of  alcohol  will  be  required,  the  remainder  of  the  gallon 
to  be  made  up  with  water. 

The  addition  of  a  volume  of  hydrogen  peroxide  equal  to  that  of  the 

formaldehyde  has  been  found  to  somewhat  enhance  the  value  of  this 

fluid  for  red  fruits. 

Fluid  No.  2.  —  Boric  Acid 

Boric  (boracic)  acid 1  part 

Alcohol 5  parts 

Water,  to  make 50  parts 

For  one  gallon,  3^  ounces  of  boric  acid  and  16  ounces  of  alcohol 
will  be  required. 

The  powdered  form  of  boric  acid  is  the  most  convenient  to  use. 
There  is  no  necessity  to  employ  hot  water,  but  stirring  should  be  con- 
tinued until  complete  solution  is  effected. 

Fluid  No.  3.  —  Zinc  Chloride 

Zinc  chloride 3  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Water,  to  make 100  parts 

For  one  gallon  of  fluid,  5  ounces  of  zinc  chloride  and  16  ounces  of 
alcohol  will  be  required. 

Zinc  chloride,  of  good  quality,  passes  readily  into  solution ;  any 
white,  flocculent  precipitate  that  may  appear  is  allowed  to  settle  out, 
and  the  clear  fluid  decanted. 

Fluid  No.  4.  —  Sulfurous  Acid 

Sulfurous  acid 1  Part 

Alcohol 1  part 

W^ater,  to  make 10  Parts 

For  one  gallon,  16  ounces  each  of  sulfurous  acid  and  of  alcohol 

will  be  required. 

Fluid  No.  5.  —  Copper  Sulfate 

Copper  sulfate 2  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Water,  to  make 100  parts 


554  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

For  one  gallon,  3l  ounces  of  copper  sulfate  and  16  ounces  of  al- 
cohol will  be  required. 

To  facilitate  solution,  powder  the  copper  sulfate  (bluestone)  and 
dissolve  it  in  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water  ;  when  cold,  add  the  alcohol 
and  the  remainder  of  the  water  to  the  required  volume. 

Fluid  No.  6.  —  Alum 

Alum        5  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Water,  to  make 100  parts 

For  one  gallon,  8  ounces  of  alum  and  16  ounces  of  alcohol  will  be 
required. 

If  powdered  alum  is  not  obtainable,  crush  the  crystals  and  dissolve 
as  directed  in  No.  5. 

For  the  most  successful  treatment,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  fruit 
sound,  unbruised,  and  not  over-ripe  when  placed  in  the  fluid.  When 
practicable,  the  fruit  should  be  left  on  the  stalk  or  branch,  the  whole 
being  so  supported  or  suspended  in  the  bottle  that  the  fruit  is  not 
subjected  to  any  undue  pressure.  Sufficient  fluid  should  be  used  to 
completely  cover  the  fruit.  It  is  well  to  hermetically  seal  the  stopper 
with  melted  paraffin  and  to  keep  the  bottles  of  preserv^ed  fruit  in  a  cool, 
darkened  room. 

Recommendation  on  the  six  Canadian  recipes. 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  the  fluids  are  indicated  that  have 
proved  to  be  the  best  preservatives  with  the  various  fruits  under  trial. 

Apples  and  Crabs. 

Red:  No.  2  ;   the  best  fluid  in  the  larger  number  of  tests. 
No.  1  has  also  proved  effective  for  many  varieties. 
No.  2.     A  fairly  satisfactory  fluid. 
Green  and  russet:    No.  3. 

White  and  yellow :  No.  4.  This  solution,  while  in  most  respects 
quite  satisfactory,  is  apt  to  give  the  fruit  an  unnatural  paleness. 

Beans  in  Pod. 

Green:  No.  5  ;    this  is  undoubtedly  the  best  fluid. 

No.  1  may  be  used  for  short  periods  of  preservation. 


PRESERVATIVE    FLUIDS  655 

Yellow  or  wax:  No.  3  has  given  the  best  results. 

No.  4  can  be  used,  but  bleaches  rather  excessively. 
Currants. 

Black:  No.  1  and  No.  2.  Both  are  fairly  satisfactory,  the  prefer- 
ence being  with  No.  1.  Owing  to  the  large  amount  of  coloring  matter 
extracted  at  the  outset  from  this  fruit,  the  fluid  should  be  changed, 
say  at  the  expiration  of  two  or  three  weeks. 

Red:  No.  3,  closely  followed  by  No.  2,  are  successful  preservatives 
for  the  fruit. 

White  :  Nos.  2  and  3  are  almost  equally  satisfactory. 

Gooseberries. 

No.  5  ;  this  fluid  has  given  very  good  results  —  incomparably  better 
than  any  of  the  other  solutions  under  investigation. 

Grapes. 

Black  :   No.  1  is  satisfactory  and  excellent. 

Red  :      No.  3  is  probably  the  best. 

No.  1  (with  peroxide  of  hydrogen)  and  No.  2  have  been 
used  successfully. 

White  :  (green)  No.  2  and  No.  3.  Neither  of  these  has  proven 
satisfactory,  but  No.  2  seems  to  be  the  better. 

Peas  in  Pod. 

No.  5  ;    by  far  the  best  fluid. 

No.  3  has  been  used  with  some  success  for  short  periods. 

Plums. 

Our  experience  in  preserving  this  fruit  has  been  very  limited,  but 
fluid  No.  2  has  been  used  with  fair  success. 

Raspberries. 

Red  and  purple  :  A  very  difficult  fruit  to  preserve  in  its  natural 
form  and  color. 

No.  6.  This  is  the  best  of  the  many  fluids  tried  ;  by  an  occasional 
change  of  solution,  this  preservative  gives  fairly  good  results. 

White  :    No.  2. 


556  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 


Strawberries. 

No.  1  ;  this  fluid,  both  with  and  without  peroxide,  will  preserve  the 
fruit  with  much  of  its  natural  color.  No  other  fluid  among  those 
under  experiment  has  proven  at  all  satisfactory  for  this  fruit. 

Tomatoes. 
No.  2  has  given  fairly  satisfactory  results. 

Preserving  fruits  and  vegetables  for  exhibition  (A  California  method). 

Glycerine 2  to  24  oz. 

Sulfurous  acid 1  to    3  oz. 

Rock  salt 1  oz. 

Saltpeter 1  oz. 

The  above  amounts  are  for  one  gallon  of  water.  The  amount  of 
glycerine  is  governed  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  juice  of  the  subject, 
it  being  requisite  to  have  the  density  of  the  fluid  the  same  as  that 
of  the  juice.  The  amount  of  sulfurous  acid  is  governed  by  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  fruits  of  delicate  tint  being  given  the  minimum  amount, 
while  most  vegetables  will  take  the  maximum. 

It  is  absolutely  essential  for  success  to  have  pure  sulfurous  acid, 
and  this  is  best  obtained  by  treating  charcoal  with  sulfuric  acid  and 
running  the  gas  directly  into  the  water  in  the  preserving  jar.  The 
sulfurous  acid  must  be  generated  in  a  strong  vessel,  as  the  chemical 
action  is  violent. 

No  particular  pains  are  taken  to  have  the  fruit  clean  at  the  time  it 
is  placed  in  the  jars.  After  the  solution  is  on  it,  it  must  be  set  away 
in  a  dark,  cool  place,  and  carefully  examined  at  intervals  of  a  few  days. 

If  any  cloudiness  or  discoloration  appears,  the  liquid  must  be  promptly 
removed  and  replaced  by  fresh.  This  is  best  done  by  running  in 
clear  water  from  a  hose  until  all  the  preserving  fluid  is  displaced,  and 
then  recharging  the  water  in  accordance  with  the  formula.  This 
clearing  will  also  remove  all  dirt  and  sediment.  After  the  fruit  has 
remained  in  a  dark  place  for  several  months  without  change,  the  fluid 
should  be  removed  and  substituted  by  fresh,  in  which  there  is  only  one 
ounce  of  sulfurous  acid  to  the  gallon.  This  latter  strength  is  known 
as  the  "  show  liquid." 


LABELS    FOR    PLANTS  657 


Labels 


Tree  Labels  may  be  made  of  various  kinds  of  material.  The 
commonest  and  cheapest  label  is  made  of  clean  white  pine,  primed 
with  thin  white  lead.  These  can  be  purchased  of  dealers  in  nursery- 
men's supphes.     The  ordinary  nursery  tree  label  is  3|  inches  long. 

The  Cornell  tree  label  is  made  from  the  "  package  label  "  used  by 
nurserymen.  It  is  a  pine  notched  tally  6  inches  long  and  U  inches 
wide.  (Cost,  painted,  about  $1.30  to  $1.50  per  thousand.)  These  are 
wired  with  heavy  stiff  wire,  not  less  than  eighteen  inches  long,  so  that 
the  loop  is  five  or  six  inches  across.  The  labels  are  hung  on  one  of 
the  lower  limbs  of  the  tree,  where  they  are  very  conspicuous.  The 
ends  of  the  wire  are  hooked  together  around  the  limb  by  means 
of  pincers,  and,  being  stiff,  it  is  not  readily  removed  by  careless  or  mis- 
chievous persons.  The  name  is  written  firmly  with  a  very  soft  black 
lead-pencil,  and  when  the  label  is  hung  upon  the  tree,  it  is  dipped  in 
thin  white  lead,  which  fixes  the  writings  and  preserves  it  almost  indefi- 
nitely ;   or  the  name  may  be  written  firmly  into  a  fresh  white  lead. 

Labels  made  of  small  strips  of  common  zinc  are  often  used,  the 
name  being  written  on  the  metal  with  a  lead-pencil.  The  label  is 
wound  about  a  limb,  and  it  expands  as  the  part  grows.  The  label 
is  so  inconspicuous  and  so  easily  removed  that  it  is  unsatisfactory. 

Thick  tallies  of  lead,  with  the  name  stamped  in  with  dies,  are  good. 

Thin  metal  labels  that  hang  on  a  wire  are  often  broken  or  torn 
out  at  the  eyelet  by  the  wind. 

Stake  Labels,  made  of  pine  or  other  soft  clear  wood,  are  most  sat- 
isfactory for  garden  use,  unless,  perhaps,  in  botanic  gardens,  or  other 
permanent  exhibition  grounds  where  a  more  conspicuous  and  orna- 
mental label  is  wanted.  The  label  should  be  primed  with  white  lead, 
after  which  it  takes  a  permanent  mark  from  a  medium  soft  lead-pencil. 

A  good  label  for  grounds  which  are  cultivated  by  horses,  and  which 
are  therefore  likely  to  be  broken  by  the  whiffietrees,  is  a  pine  stake  2 
feet  long,  3^  inches  wide,  and  1^  inches  thick,  sawed  to  a  taper  at  the 
lower  end.  Give  them  two  coats  of  thin  white  lead,  taking  care  not 
to  pile  them  on  their  faces  whilst  drying.  Make  the  record  with  a  soft 
large  lead-pencil.  When  the  writing  wears  off,  or  the  label  is  wanted 
for  other  uses,  plane  a  shaving  off  the  face,  paint  again,  and  it  is  as 
good  as  new. 


558  COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS 

To  PRESERVE  Wooden  Labels.  —  Thoroughly  soak  the  pieces  of 
wood  in  a  strong  solution  of  copperas  (sulfate  of  iron)  ;  then  lay 
them,  after  they  are  dry,  in  lime-water.  This  causes  the  formation  of 
sulfate  of  lime,  a  very  insoluble  salt,  in  the  wood. 

Black  Ink  for  Zinc  Labels.  —  Verdigris,  1  ounce  ;  sal  am- 
moniac, 1  ounce  ;  lampblack,  ^  ounce  ;  rain-water,  1^  pint.  Mix 
in  an  earthenware  mortar  or  jar  and  put  up  in  small  bottles.  To  be 
shaken  before  use  and  used  with  a  clean  quill  pen  on  bright  zinc. 

Jars  for  Specimens 

The  jars,  bottles,  or  boxes  in  which  specimens  are  kept  shc«uld  be 
tight,  to  prevent  evaporation,  to  keep  out  dust  and  mold,  and  to 
protect  from  insects.  There  are  specially  made  museum  jars  of  manj' 
attractive  patterns.  Four-sided  fruit-jars  with  covers  held  by  lever 
fastenings  are  also  excellent.  If  one  cannot  secure  such  receptacles 
as  these,  he  may  prepare  old  bottles,  and  then  fasten  covers  over 
them.     Following  are  old  methods  of  cutting  bottles  in  two  :  — 

1.  Pass  five  or  six  strands  of  coarse  packing-twine  round  the  bottle 
on  each  side  of  the  line  where  you  want  it  divided,  so  as  to  form  a  groove 
i  inch  wide;  in  this  groove  pass  one  turn  of  a  piece  of  hard-laid 
white  cord,  extend  the  two  ends,  and  fasten  to  some  support.  Saw 
the  bottle  backwards  and  forwards  for  a  short  time ;  after  a  minute's 
friction,  by  a  side  motion  of  the  bottle  throw  it  out  of  the  cord  into  a 
tub  of  water,  and  then  tap  on  the  side  of  the  tub  and  the  bottom 
\vill  fall  off. 

2.  Fill  the  bottle  the  exact  height  you  wish  it  to  be  cut,  with  oil  of 
any  kind;  dip,  very  gradually,  a  red-hot  iron  into  the  oil.  The  glass 
suddenly  chips  and  cracks  all  round,  then  the  upper  surface  may  be 
lifted  off  at  the  surface  of  the  oil. 

3.  For  cutting  off  bottoms  of  bottles,  make  a  slight  nick  with  a 
file,  and  then  mark  round  with  a  streak  of  ink  where  you  want  it  to 
come  off.  Make  an  iron  red-hot  and  lay  it  on  the  nick.  This  will 
cause  it  to  expand  and  crack ;  then,  by  moving  the  rod  round,  the 
crack  ^vill  follow. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

DiRECTOEIES 

The  farmer  now  secures  his  technical  information  from  the  colleges 
and  schools  of  agriculture  and  experiment  stations  in  the  different 
states,  territories,  and  provinces  (directories  given  on  the  succeeding 
pages)  ;  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  Wash- 
ington ;  from  departments  of  agriculture  at  the  capitals  of  the  states, 
territories,  and  provinces ;  and  from  other  pubhc  institutions. 

The  number  of  agricultural  and  country-life  societies  is  now  very- 
great.     A  general  directory  of  them  is  printed  in  Vol.   IV  of  the 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  and  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment  of  Agriculture  ;    and  local  lists  may   sometimes  be  secured 
from  the  state  departments  of  agriculture,  and  in  the  rural  press. 

Some  of  the  Institutions  and  Agencies  making  for  a  Better  Rural  Life 

1.  Departments  of  Agriculture,  national  and  state. 

2.  Colleges  of  agriculture,  one  for  each  state,  territory,  or  province. 

3.  Agricultural  experiment  stations,  in  nearly  all  cases  connected 
with  the  colleges  of  agriculture. 

4.  The  pubhc  school  system,  into  which  agriculture  is  now  being 
incorporated.  Normal  schools,  into  many  of  which  agriculture  is 
being  introduced. 

5.  Special  separate  schools  of  agriculture  and  household  subjects. 

6.  Special  colleges,  as  veterinary  and  forestry  institutions. 

7.  Departments  or  courses  of  agriculture  in  general  or  old-line  col- 
leges and  universities. 

8.  Farmers'  institutes,  usually  conducted  by  colleges  of  agriculture 
or  by  boards  or  departments  of  agriculture. 

(The  above  institutions  may  engage  in  various  forms  of  extension 
work.) 

9.  The  agricultural  press. 

559 


560  DIRECTORIES 

10.  The  general  rural  newspapers. 

11.  Agricultural  and  horticultural  societies  of  all  kinds. 

12.  The  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  Farmers'  Educational  and  Cooper- 
ative Union,  and  other  national  organizations. 

13.  Business  societies  and  agencies,  many  of  them  cooperative. 

14.  Business  men's  associations  and  chambers  of  commerce  in 
cities  and  towns. 

15.  Local  political  organizations  (much  in  need  of  re-direction). 

16.  Civic   societies. 

17.  The  church. 

18.  The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and  other  religious 
organizations. 

19.  Women's  clubs  and  organizations,  of  many  kinds. 

20.  Fairs  and  expositions. 

21.  Rural  libraries. 

22.  Village  improvement  societies. 

23.  Historical  societies. 

24.  Public  health  regulation. 

25.  Fraternal  societies. 

26.  Musical  organizations. 

27.  Organizations  aiming  to  develop  recreation,  and  games  and  play. 

28.  Rural  free  delivery  of  mail  (a  general  parcels  post  is  a  necessity). 

29.  Postal  savings  banks. 

30.  Rural  banks  (often  in  need  of  redirection  in  their  relations  to 
the  development  of  the  open  country). 

31.  Labor-distributing  bureaus. 

32.  Good  thoroughfares. 

33.  Railroads,  and  trolley  extensions  (the  latter  needed  to  pierce 
the  remoter  districts  rather  than  merely  to  parallel  railroads  and  to 
connect  large  towns). 

34.  Telephones. 

35.  Auto-vehicles. 

36.  Country  stores  and  trading-places  (in  some  cases). 

37.  Insurance  organizations. 

38.  Many  government  agencies  to  safeguard  the  people,  as  public 
service  commissions. 

39.  Books  on  agriculture  and  country  life. 

40.  Good  farmers,  living  on  the  land. 


COLLEGES    AND    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS  561 

Agricultural  and  Forestry  Colleges,  Schools,  and  Stations  in  Canada 

Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph,  opened  1874. 

Nova  Scotia  Agricultural  College,  Truro,  present  farm  purchased 
and  building  begun  1885. 

Prince  Edward  Island  ;  a  professorship  of  agriculture  in  Prince 
of  Wales  College,  Charlottetown. 

Macdonald  Institute,  Guelph,  Ontario,  founded  1903,  for  home 
economics,  nature  study,  and  manual-training. 

Macdonald  College  (incorporated  with  McGill  University),  Sainte 
Anne  de  Bellevue,  Province  Quebec,  opened  1907. 

Oka  Agricultural  School,  Oka,  Province  of  Quebec,  recognized  by 
province  government   in   1893. 

Provincial  Dairy  School,  St.  Hyacinthe,  Province  of  Quebec,  present 
building  erected  1906. 

Eastern  Dairy  School,  Kingston,  Ontario,  established  1894. 

School  of  Forestry,  Toronto  University  (1907). 

Laval  University  Forestry  School,  Quebec  (1910). 

University  of  New  Brunswick,  chair  of  forestry. 

Agricultural  School  of  Sainte  Anne  de  la  Pocatiere,  Pr.  Quebec,  1858. 

Manitoba  Agricultural  College,  Winnepeg,  opened  1906. 

Saskatchewan  Agricultural  College,  Saskatoon  (in  course  of  erection). 

Central  Experimental  Farms,  Ottawa  (for  the  Dominion,  1886)  ; 
branches  at  Nappan,  Nova  Scotia,  for  the  maritime  provinces  ;  Bran- 
don, Manitoba  ;  Indian  Head,  Saskatchewan  ;  Lacombe  and  Leth- 
bridge,  Alberta  ;    Agassiz,  British  Columbia. 

Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  in  the  United  States 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  acres  of  land  received  by 
each  state  from  the  Land-Grant  Act  of  1862,  the  date  of  establish- 
ment of  the  institution  that  cares  for  the  agricultural  work,  and  the 
date  at  which  instruction  in  agriculture  was  begun :  — 

The  experiment  station  is  connected  with  the  college,  except  in: 
Ohio,  at  Wooster;  Georgia,  at  Experiment  (dept.  of  the 
college  at  Athens) ;  Conn.  Experiment  Station  at  New  Haven, 
and  Storrs  Station  at  the  college ;  New  York,  the  State  Station 
at  Geneva,  but  the  federal  station  at  the  college. 
2o 


562 


DIRECTORIES 


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564  DIRECTORIES 


Forestry  Schools  in  the   United  States,   1911-12 

Many  institutions  give  courses  in  forestry.  Following  are  those  that 
have  separate  schools,  faculties,  or  comparable  organizations,  or  that 
have  four-year  courses ;  there  are  many  other  American  institutions 
giving  more  or  less  instruction  in  forestry. 


Graduate  schools 

Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Yale  Forest  School  (founded 
in  1900). 

University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Course  of  Forestry 
(founded  in    1901). 

Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Division  of  Forestry,  School 
of  Applied  Science. 

Undergraduate  schools  and  departments 

University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  College  of  Forestry. 
University  of  Washington,  Seattle,  School  of  Forestry  (estab.  1907). 

Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springe,  School  of  Forestry  (established 
1905). 

Colorado  Agricultural  College,  Fort  Collins. 

University  of  Georgia,  Athens,  School  of  Forestry. 

University  of  Idaho,  Moscow. 

Iowa  State  College,  Ames. 

University  of  Maine,  Orono. 

Michigan  Agricultural  College,  East  Lansing.  Forestry  course 
(established  1902). 

University  of  Montana,  Missoula. 

University  of  Nebraska,  College  of  Agriculture. 

Oregon   Agricultural   College,   Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College. 

State  College  of  Washington,  Pullman. 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia. 

New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca. 

Biltmore  Forest  School.     This  school  holds  a  winter  session  in 


VETERINARY  INSTITUTIONS  565 

Germany,  a  spring  session  in  the  Adirondacks  and  Southern  Appa- 
lachians, and  during  the  autumn  months  in  the  Lake  States. 

Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Academy,  Mont  Alto. 

State  College  of  Forestry,  Syracuse  University,  N.Y.  (legislation 
passed  1911). 

North  American  Veterinary  Colleges  and  Departments,  1910-11 

Colleges,  schools,  and  divisions,  giving  full  courses  or  leading  to 
veterinary  degrees 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine, 
Auburn. 

Chicago  Veterinary  College  (1883). 

Cincinnati  Veterinary  College. 

George  Washington  University,  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine, 
Washington,  D.C. 

United  States  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  Washington,  D.C. 

Grand  Rapids  Veterinary  College,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  (1897). 

Indiana  Veterinary  College,  Indianapolis  (1892). 

Iowa  State  College,  Division  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ames  (1884). 

Kansas  City  Veterinary  College  (1891). 

University  Veterinary  College,  Kansas  City. 

Western  Veterinary  College,  Kansas  City  (1897). 

McKillip  Veterinary  College,  Chicago  (1894). 

New  York  American  Veterinary  College,  New  York  City  (1899). 

New  York  State  Veterinary  College,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca  (1896). 

Ohio  State  University,  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Columbus 
(1883). 

San  Francisco  Veterinary  College. 

Collins  Veterinary  Medical  College,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Phila- 
delphia (1884). 

Washington  State  College,  School  of  Veterinary  Science,  Pullman 
(1899). 

University  of  Toronto,  Ontario  Veterinary  College. 

School  of  Comparative  Medicine  and  Veterinary  Science,  Montreal 
(Laval  University). 


566  DIRECTORIES 

Departments  and  chairs 

A  regular  professor  or  teacher  in  veterinar}^  science  is  also  provided 
in  the  institution  carrying  the  college  of  agriculture  in  Arkansas, 
California,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Montana,  Nebraska, 
Nevada,  North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  South 
Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Utah,  Vermont,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming. 

Teachers  of  animal  husbandry  give  more  or  less  instruction  in  the 
veterinary  subjects. 

Home  Economics  Institutions  and  Departments,  1910-11 

Instruction  of  advanced  or  of  college  grade  in  the  homemaking 
subjects  is  now  provided  in  many  of  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  with 
particular  bearing  on  rural  conditions ;  and  several  other  institutions 
also  have  departments  for  these  subjects,  and  a  few  are  devoted 
exclusively  to  such  work.  The  work  passes  under  different  names, 
as  domestic  science,  household  science,  domestic  art,  domestic  economy, 
home  economics. 

In  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  departments  or  teachers  are  provided 
for  these  subjects  in  Arizona,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Hawaii,  Idaho, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New 
Mexico,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Penn- 
sylvania, Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Vermont, 
Washington,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming. 

Among  other  institutions  that  provide  instruction  in  the  home  and 
household  subjects  are  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University, 
New  York  City ;  University  of  Chicago ;  Northwestern  University ; 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago  ;  Simmons  College,  Boston ;  Pratt  Institute, 
Brooklyn ;  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia ;  Worcester  Domestic  Science 
School,  Worcester,  Mass. ;  Mechanics  Institute,  Rochester,  N.Y. ; 
School  of  Domestic  Science  and  Arts,  Chicago;  Domestic  Science 
Training  School,  Chicago ;  University  of  Kansas  (Lawrence) ;  Boston 
Y.  W.  C.  A.  School  of  Domestic  Science ;  Berea  College  (Ken.) ; 
Rockford    College    (III.) ;     Bradley    Polytechnic    Institute,    Peoria; 


HOME    ECONOMICS    AND    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING      567 

James  Milliken  University,  Decatur,  111. ;  Southern  University,  New 
Orleans;  Northfield  Seminary  (Mass.);  Louisiana  Industrial  In- 
stitute, Ruston;  Stout  Institute,  Menomonie,  Wis.;  Milwaukee- 
Downer  College;  Lake  Erie,  College,  Painesville,  0.;  American 
University,  of  Harriman,  Tenn. ;  College  of  Domestic  Arts, 
Denton,  Tex.;  Industrial  Institute  and  College,  Columbus,  Miss.; 
Macdonald  Institute,  Guelph,  Ont. ;  Macdonald  College,  Ste.  Anne 
de  Bellevue,  P.  Q. ;  Mt.  Allison  University,  Sackville,  New  Bruns- 
wick; Manitoba  Agricultural  College,  Winnipeg;  and  instruction  is 
also  supplied  in  normal  schools,  high-schools,  seminaries,  and  in  many 
other  institutions,  and  in  cooking  schools. 

Institutions  teaching  Landscape  Architecture  (or  Landscape  Gardening) 
of  College  Grade,  1910-11 

Full  or  extended  college  courses  in  landscape  architecture  are  given 
at  Harvard,  Cornell,  and  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  More 
or  less  instruction  is  given  in  the  subject  in  departments  of  horticul- 
ture in  some  institutions;  and  it  is  separately  represented  in  the 
colleges  of  agriculture  of  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Oregon.  Colleges  and 
departments  of  architecture  give  attention  to  these  subjects. 


Library 
K.  C,  State  College 


INDEX 


Abderhalden,  on  milk,  444. 

Acanthacara  similis,  328. 

Acanthorhynchus  vaccinii,  269. 

Acetic  acid,  29. 

Acleris  minuta,  317. 

Acorus,  191. 

Acre,  plants  to  the,  120. 

Acrobasis  nebulella,  328. 

Acrostalagmus  sp.,  271. 

Actinomena  rosse,  281. 

Adiantum,  189. 

Advanced  registry,  345. 

.^cidium  grossularise,  271. 

Age  of  animals,  337. 

Agencies  of  better  rural  life,  559. 

Agricultural  colleges,  561,  562. 

Agricultural  virtues,  172. 

Agrilus  anxius,  311. 

Agromyza  simplex,  310. 

Agrotis,  sp.,  302,  315. 

Albugo  candidus,  280. 

Alcoholic  wax,  513. 

Aleyrodes  spp.,  323. 

Alfalfa,    diseases,    262 ;     fertilizer   for, 

62,  64;    grading,  152. 
Algae  in  ponds,  251. 
Alkali,  35. 

Allen,  on  gestation,  343. 
Almond,  diseases,  263. 
Aloysia,  189. 

Alsophila  pometaria,  306. 
Alternaria  panacis,  270 ;    solani,  279. 
Alum  to  preserve  fruits,  554. 
Aluminum,  24,  25. 
Amendment,  40. 
Ammonia,  29. 
Ammoniacal     carbonate     of     copper, 

255. 
Ampelophaga  myron,  321. 
Analyses   of   fertilizers,    57 ;    of    feces, 

88;   of  fruits,  etc.,  90;   of  soils,  54. 
Anarsia  sp.,  325,  332. 


Ancylis  comptana,  332. 

Angleworm,  301. 

Aniline,  29. 

Animal  bodies,  composition  of,  27. 

Animals,  exhibiting,  383  ;     feeding  of, 

409;      judging,       383,      386,      392; 

parasites  of,  429. 
Anthonomus  grandis,  316;    quadrigib- 

bus,  305  ;   signatus,  332. 
Antidote  for  arsenic  poisoning,  290. 
Antimony,  24. 

Ants  in  lawns,  322  ;   white,  305. 
Aphides,  301. 
Aphis    brassicae,    311;     forbesii,    332; 

maidiradicis,  314 ;    on  house  plants, 

189 ;    persicae-niger,  325. 
Aponogeton,  191. 
Apothecaries'    measure,    517;     weight, 

516. 
Apple,  boxes,  164,  165  ;  diseases,  263 ; 

fertilizer  for,  64  ;   insects,  305  ;  seed, 

weight,  533. 
Apples,  for  cider,  529;  packing,   166; 

scoring,     177,     178 ;      storing,     141 ; 

to     preserve     for     exhibition,     554 ; 

weight,  529,  534. 
Appliances,  electric,  502. 
Apricot,  diseases,  265;     insects,  310. 
Aquatic  window  plants,  191. 
Architecture,  farm,  473. 
Argas  miniatus,  378. 
Argentina,  money,  522,  523. 
Argon,  24. 

Argopsylla  gallinacea,  378. 
Armsby,  on  feeding,  409,  416. 
Army-worm,  315. 
Arsenate  of  lead,  291. 
Arsenic,    24 ;     antidote    for,    290 ;     as 

insecticide,     290;      for     dips,     431; 

for  weeds,  222,  224. 
Arsenious  oxid,  29. 
Asafoetida  for  rabbits,  238. 


569 


570 


INDEX 


Ascochyta  pisi,  275. 

Ash.  26. 

Ashes,  analysis,  59  ;    weight,  540. 

Asparagus,     diseases.     205 ;      fertilizer 

for,  65  ;   insects,  310;    packages,  170. 

171;    pluniosus,     198;    under  glass. 

190. 
Aspidiotus  aurantii,   323  ;    perniciosus, 

304. 
Ass,    gestation,    342,    343;     milk    of, 

443. 
Aster,  insect,  311. 
Atmosphere,  composition,  25. 
Attar  of  roses,  551. 
Auger,  soil,  543. 
Austrian  money,  522,  523. 
Autographa  brassicae,  311,  322. 
Avoirdupois  weight,  516. 
Ayrshire  records,  350. 
Azalea,  198. 
Azolla,  191. 

Babcock,  greenhouse  heating,  194. 

Babcock  test,  446,  456. 

Bacillus  amylovorus,  277  ;    campestre, 

266 ;   tracheiphilus,  270. 
Bacon,  grades  of,  406. 
Bacon-hog,  scoring,  404. 
Bacterium    phaseoli,    265 ;     solanacea- 

rum,    282,    283;     tumefaciens,    266, 

272,  276,  281. 
Baedeker,  money,  524. 
Bag- worm,  301. 
Bait  for  insects,  293. 
Balanced  rations,  409,  410,  413. 
Balaninus  sp.,  313. 
Ball-weevil,  316. 
Bandages,  waxed,  513. 
Banding  for  insects,  286. 
Barb-wire,  479. 
Barium,  24. 
Bark-lice,  301. 
Barleycorn,  528. 
Barley,    diseases,    261  ;     fertilizer    for, 

65;   grading.  161;    weight,  534,  541. 
Barn  figures,  477. 
Barnyard  manure,  88. 
Buroriictcr  indications,  1.  9. 
Barrels,  apple.  105;    various,  528. 
Baryta  for  mice,  235. 
Basket-worm.  301. 
Beal.  W.  J.,  on  seeds,  104. 


Bean,    diseases,    265 ;     fertilizer    for, 

62,  65;   insects,  311. 
Beans,  packages,  170,  171  ;  to  preserve 

for  exhibition,  555  ;  under  glass,  190  ; 

weight,  534,  541. 
Bear,  gestation,  342,  343. 
Beaunis,  quoted,  27. 
Beaver,  gestation,  342,  343. 
Beef-cattle,  scoring,  395. 
Beef,  market  classes,  404. 
Bees,  in  pound,  530. 
Beeswax,  512. 

Beet,  diseases,  266  ;  fertilizer  for,  62,  66. 
Beets,  packages,  170;  utider  glass,  190; 

weight,  534,  541. 
Beggarweed,  139  ;   weight,  533. 
Begonias,  189. 
Belgium  money,  523. 
Belting,  498. 

Bembecia  marginata,  331. 
Berckmans,  on  storing  sweet-potatoes, 

148. 
Beryllium,  24. 
Bichloride    of   mercury   for   fungicide, 

255  ;    for  herbarium,  546. 
Bins,  contents  of,  530. 
Birch,  insects,  311. 
Birds,  pestiferous,  243. 
Bismuth,  24. 
Bisulfid  of  carbon,  293  ;    also  241,  243, 

544,  546. 
Bit  or  shilling,  523. 
Bitter  milk,  459. 
Blackberries,  weight,  529. 
Blackberry,  diseases,  266 ;  fertilizer  for, 

66;   insects,  311;   seed,  533. 
Black-knot,   279. 
Black-rot  of  grape,  272. 
Blepharida  rhois,  334. 
Blight,  pear.  277. 
Blissus  leucopterus,  315. 
Blister-beetle,  302. 

Blood,  analysis,  58 ;    quantity  in  ani- 
mals, 345. 
Blue-grass  seed,  weight,  534,  541. 
Blue-stone  for  bordeaux,  253. 
Blue    vitriol     as    fungicide,    258 ;     for 

bordeaux,  254  ;    for  weeds,  223. 
Board  measure,  210. 
Boars,  grades  of,  408. 
Boiled  milk.  448. 
Boiler  cements,  507. 


INDEX 


671 


Boilers,  to  prevent  rust,  200. 

Bolivaa,  money,  522. 

Bollworm,  316. 

Bone,  analysis,  57. 

Bone-black,  analysis,  57. 

Bone  charcoal,  analysis,  57. 

Book  measure,  519. 

Boracic  acid  to  preserve  fruits,  553. 

Borax  in  milk,  449. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  formula,  253. 

Borders,  cement,  505. 

Borers,  307,  308,  325,  328. 

Boric  acid  test,  449. 

Boron,  24. 

Boston,  dates  in,  106. 

Bosworth,  on  casein  test,  456. 

Bot-fly,  437,  439,  440. 

Bottles,  to  cut  in  two,  558. 

Bouguer,  reflection  of  light,  198. 

Boxes  for  fruits,  163. 

Box  packing  of  apples,  166. 

Bran,  weight,  534. 

Brazil,  money,  522,  523. 

Bremia  lactucae,  273. 

Brimstone  as  fungicide,  258. 

British  India,  money,  523. 

Bromin,  24. 

Bromus  inermis,  weight,  533. 

Brooks,  on  manures,  81,  82,  85. 

Broom-corn  seed,  weight,  534. 

Brown,  Edgar,  on  seeds,  97. 

Brown-tail  moth,  302. 

Bruchophagus  funebris,  314. 

Bruchus  obtectus,  311  ;    pisi,  324. 

Brussels  sprouts,  diseases,  266  ;  pack- 
ages, 169. 

Bucculatrix  pomifoliella,  305. 

Buckwheat,  fertilizer  for,  66  ;  weight, 
534,  541. 

Bud-moth,  306. 

Buffalo  bur,  229. 

Buffalo,  gestation,  342,  343;  milk  of, 
443. 

Buffalo-gnat,  438. 

Buhach,  297. 

Bulbs,  198. 

Burning  insects,  286. 

Bushel,  legal  weight,  533.  534,  540. 

Bushels,  capacities,  528,  530. 

Butter  classifications,  465 ;  making, 
458;   scores,  463  ;   tests,  451-455. 

Butyrin,  443. 


Cabbage,  diseases,  266;  fertilizer  for,  67; 
insects,  311;  storing,  142;  weight,  533. 
Cabbages,  packages,  169,  171. 
Cabinets  or  museums,  543. 
Cable,  measure,  528. 
Cadmium,  24. 
Cae-sium,  24. 
Calcium,  24,  25. 

California  fruit  packages,  161,  164. 
Calla,  189,  198. 
Calocampa  nupera,  318. 
Calories  in  milk,  443. 
Caltha,  191. 
Camel,  milk  of,  443. 
Camphor  for  mice,  236. 
Canada,  packages  in,  167  ;   weights  in, 

540. 
Canada  thistle,  225,  230. 
Canadian  weather  signals,  8. 
Canary,  incubation,  342,  343. 
Canary  seed,  weight,  533. 
Canker  of  apple,  263,  264. 
Canker-worm,  306. 
Canteloupe,  weight,  533. 
Capacity  measures,  517,  520. 
Carbolic  acid  as  insecticide,  293  ;    for 

weeds,  222,  223. 
Carbon,  24,  25. 
Carbonate  of  copper,  255. 
Carbon   bisulfid,   293;    also  241,   243, 

544,  546. 
Carbon  dioxid,  29. 
Carbonic  oxid,  29. 
Carlyle,  on  soiling,  136. 
Carnation,  198 ;   diseases,  267. 
Carnations,  scoring,  179. 
Carpenter,     greenhouse    heating,    191, 

195. 
Carpocapsa  pomonella,  306. 
Carrot,    as   field   crop,    140 ;    fertilizer 

for,  67;    insects,  312. 
Carrots,  weight,  534,  541. 
Case-bearers,  306,  328. 
Casein  in  milk,  442. 
Casein-test,  456. 
Cast-iron  pipe,  198. 
Castor-beans,  weight,  534,  541. 
Cat,  controlling,  234;  gestation,  342,343. 
Catch-crops,  139. 
Cattle,  determining  age,  337  ;    manure, 

81,  83,  87,  88;   parasites,  437  ;   scor- 
ing, 395 ;   ticks,  429. 


572 


INDEX 


Cauliflower,  fertilizer  for,  68 ;  insects, 
312  ;  packages,  169  ;  under  glass,  190. 

Caustic  soda  for  woods,  224. 

Cavanaugh,  quoted,  49,  54. 

Celery,  diseases,  267 ;  fertilizer  for, 
67;  insects,  312;  packages,  169; 
storing,  142. 

Celsius  scale,  527. 

Cement,  504. 

Centigrade  scale,  527. 

Centimes,  etc.,  522. 

Ceratocystis  fimbriata,  282. 

Cercospora  angulata,  270 ;  apii,  267 ; 
beticola,  266. 

Cereals,  smut,  260. 

Cerium,  24. 

Chaetocnema  confinis,  335. 

Chafer,  rose,  308,  322. 

Chain  measure,  518. 

Charcoal,  26. 

Charlock,  227,  230. 

Chase,  on  road-drags,  485. 

Chautauqua  grape  figures,  164. 

Cheese  score-cards,  464 ;  tests,  453, 
455,  456-457. 

Cherries,  scoring,  178. 

Cherry,  diseases,  267 ;  fertilizer  for, 
68;   insects,  313. 

Chestnut,  diseases,  268;    insects,  313. 

Chestnuts,  weight,  533. 

Chicken  mite,  377  ;   tick,  378. 

Chickens,  to  protect  from  hawks,  245. 

Chickweed,  232. 

Chile,  money,  522,  523. 

Chimney  sizes,   195, 

China,  money,  523. 

Chinch-bug,  315. 

Chionaspis  furfurus,  309. 

Chiswick  pots,  199. 

Chlorin,  24. 

Chloroform,  29. 

Chromium,  24. 

Chrysanthemum,  198;  diseases,  268; 
insects,  313;    scoring,  180. 

Chrysobothris  fomorata,  307. 

Chrysoniyia  macollaria,  438. 

Chufa,  weight,  533. 

Cider,  529. 

Cineraria,  198. 

Citrus  measures,  164;  trees,  fumigat- 
ing, 289. 

City  milk  plants,  472. 


Cladosporium  carpophilum,  277;    ful« 

vum,  283. 
Clark,  on  the  elements,  25. 
Classification  of  butter,  465. 
Clean  milk,  471. 
Climate  and  crops,  19. 
Cloth  for  pits  and  frames,  200,  510. 
Clover,   fertilizer  for,  62,  68 ;    insects, 

313;    seed,  weight,  534,  541. 
Club-root,  266. 
Coal  ashes,  analysis,  59. 
Coal-tar    cement,    508 ;     for    wounds, 

515. 
Cobalt,  24. 

Coccotorus  prunicida,  329. 
Cocklebur,  229. 
Coconuts,  packing,  530. 
Cocos,  189. 
Codlin-moth,  306. 
Cold  storage,  149  ;   of  animal  products, 

345. 
Coleophora  sp.,  306. 
Coleus,  189. 

Collecting  specimens,  543. 
Colleges,  lists  of,  561,  562,  564,  565. 
Colletotrichum    gossypii,    269 ;     lagen- 

arium,   274  ;    lindemuthianum,  265  ; 

malvarum,  273. 
Colombia,  money,  522,  523. 
Color  of  flowers,  546. 
Columbium,  24. 
Combinations  in  chemistry,  25. 
Commercial  grades  of  crops,  150. 
Composition  tables,  419. 
Compounds,  25,  28. 
Computations,  516. 
Computing  fertilizer  values,  49. 
Computing  rations,  409,  410,  413. 
Conotracholus  crata^gi,  330  ;  nenuphar, 

307,  326,  329. 
Conover,  on  silos,  473. 
Construction,  chapter  on,  473. 
Contarinia  violicola,  336.  . 
Contents  of  pipes  and  tanks,  531,  532. 
Copeck,  522. 
Copper,  24. 

Copperas  for  woods,  223,  227  ;  as  fun- 
gicide, 258. 
C()I)por  carbonate,  255. 
Copper  cement,  508. 
Coi>per  sulfate  as  fungicide,  258  ;    for 

bordeaux,  253  ;    for  ponds,  251  ;   for 


INDEX 


673 


weeds,  223,  227 ;    to  preserve  fruits, 

553. 
Corbett,  on  packages,  169. 
Cord  measure,  211. 
Corimelsena  pulicaria,  313. 
Corn,  diseases,  268,  269  ;   fertilizer  for, 

60,  68;    grading,  159;    insects,  314; 

meal,    weight,    534 ;     scoring,    177 ; 

weight,  529,  533,  534,  536,  538,  540, 

541. 
Corrosive  sublimate  as  fungicide,  255. 
Coryneum  beyerinkii,  263,  275. 
Costa  Rica,  money,  522. 
Cotton,    diseases,    269 ;     grades,    150 ; 

insects,  316. 
Cottonseed,  weight,  533,  534. 
Cover-crops,  138. 
Cow-dung  for  potting,  187. 
Cow,    gestation,    342,    343 ;     parts    of, 

396. 
Cows,  profit-and-loss,  360. 
Cow-testing,  362,  364. 
Cox,  on  frost,  13. 
Coyotes,  243. 

Crab-apples,  for  exhibition,  554. 
Crambus  spp.,  315,  317. 
Cranberry,  diseases,  269  ;   weight,  536  ; 

insects,  317. 
Craponius  inaequalis,  320. 
Crates,  for  fruits,  163. 
Cream,  bitter,  459. 
Creamery,  bitter,  465. 
Creosote  for  posts,  208. 
Cresol,  436. 
Cress  under  glass,  190. 
Cribs,  contents  of,  530. 
Criddle  mixture,  293. 
Crioceris  sp.,  310. 
Crops  for  special  purposes,  133. 
Crosby,  on  house-fly,  249  ;    on  insecti- 
cides,   286 ;     on    insects,    301 ;     on 

poultry    insects,     377 ;      on    animal 

parasites,  434. 
Crown-gall,  264,  272,  276,  281. 
Crown  (of  money),  522,  523. 
Crows,  245. 

Crude  oil  for  stock,  436. 
Cryptorhynchus  lapathi,  329. 
Crystallized  fruit,  143. 
Cuba,  money,  522. 
Cubic  measure,  518,  520. 
Cubing  logs,  217,  218. 


Cubit,  measure,  528. 

Cucumber,  diseases,  270  ;  fertilizer  for, 
69;  insects,  318;  packages,  170, 
171;  under  glass,  190;  weight, 
533. 

Curculio,  307,  326,  329,  330. 

Curd-test,  457. 

Currant,  diseases,  270 ;  fertilizer  for, 
69;  insects,  318;  to  preserve  for 
exhibition,  555  ;    weight,  533. 

Cuscuta  epithymum,  262. 

Cutworms,  302,  315,  355. 

Cyanide  of  potassium,  287. 

Cylamen,  198. 

Cylas  formicarius,  334. 

Cylinders,  capacities,  531. 

Cyhndrosporium  padi,  268. 

Cymatophora  ribearia,  319. 

Cyperus,  189,  191. 

Dahlia,  insects,  319. 

Dairy-cattle,  scoring,  398. 

Dairy-cows,  profit-and-loss,  360. 

Dairy  farm  scores,  467. 

Dairying,  chapter  on,  442. 

Dairy  score-cards,  462-472. 

Daisy,  white,  231. 

Dakruma  covolutella,  320. 

Dalmatian  insect  powder,  297. 

Damping-off,  260. 

Damp  walls,  paint  for,  509. 

Dandelion,  eradicating,  231. 

Darwin,  on  gestation,  343. 

Dasyneura    Icguminicola,  313. 

Data  on  water,  489. 

Dates  for  planting,  106,  109,  110. 

Date-tables,  109,  110. 

Dean,  radiation  for  glass,  196. 

Denmark,  money,  523. 

Depluming  scabies,  378. 

Depressaria  heracliana,  324. 

Dermanyssus  gallinae,  377. 

Dew-point,  13,  15. 

Diabrotica  longicornis,  314 ;   sp.,  318. 

Diaphania    hyalinata,    322 ;     nitidalis, 

318;   quadristigmalis,  330. 
Diaporthe  parasitica,  268. 
Diaspis  pentagona,  328. 
Diatroea  saccharalis,  333. 
Digestable  nutrients,  424. 
Dinar,  523. 
Diplodia  zese,  268. 


574 


INDEX 


Diplnsis  pyrivora,  326. 

Dips  for  cattlo.  431,  434. 

Directories,  559. 

Disinfectant  for  stables,  434,  436. 

Distances  to  plant.  109,  119,  120. 

Distillate  emulsion,  294  ;  fuel,  222. 

Dock.  225.  226. 

Dodder  on  alfalfa.  262. 

Dog.  gestation.  342.  343  ;   milk  of.  444. 

Dollar.  522,  523. 

Domestic  science  schools,  566. 

Drachma,  523. 

Draft-hor.se,  scoring.  392. 

Drags,  road.  485.  487. 

Draining,  tile.  481. 

Dried  fruit,  529,  534. 

Dropsy  of  plants,  260. 

Dry  measure,  517. 

Duck,  incubation,  342,  343. 

Durum  wheat,  155. 

Dutch  money,  522. 

Duvel,  seed  table,  101. 

Dysprosium,  24. 

Earthenware  cement,  508. 

Earth  for  potting,  187. 

Earthworm,  301. 

Ecuador,  money,  522. 

Egg-plant,    fertilizer    for,    69 ;     insect, 

319;   packages,  170,  171. 
Egg-production,  372. 
Eggs,  care  of,  375.;   scoring,  368. 
Egypt,  money,  523. 
Eichhornia,  189,  191. 
Elaphidion  villosum,  309. 
Electric  appliances,  502. 
Electricity  in  producing  potash  salts, 

44. 
Elements,  the,  24. 
Elephant,  gestation,  342,  343. 
Ell,  528. 

Elliott,  draining,  481,  482. 
Ellwanger,  on  perfumery,  551. 
Elm,  in.sects,  319. 
Emblematic  flowers,  185. 
Emphytus  macuhitus.  332. 
Empoa  albopicta,  319. 
Enmlsions  as  insecticides,  294. 
Enarmonia  interstictana,  314. 
Endive,  insect.  320. 
Energy  values.  409,  445. 
Engineering,  chapter  on,  473. 


Engines,  hot-air,  503. 

Engle  on  leaf-prints,  549. 

English  money,  521,  523. 

English  sparrows,  244. 

Epiphyllum,  189. 

Epitrix  parvula,  335. 

Erbium,  24. 

Eriocampoides  limacina,  313. 

Eriophyses  pyri,  307,  326. 

Erysiphe  polygoni,  275. 

Eudemis  vacciniana,  317. 

Eulecanium  armeniacum,  310. 

Euproctis  chrysorrhsea,  302. 

Europium,  24. 

Euthrips  citri,  323  ;    pyri,  327. 

Euvanessa  antiopa,  336. 

Evaporated  fruit,  529,  534. 

Excrement,  animal,  88. 

Exhibiting    live-stock,    383 ;     poultry, 

378. 
Exhibitions,  rules  for  plants,  181. 
Exoascus  deformans,  275. 
Exobasidium  oxycocci,  269. 
Experiment  stations,  list  of,  561. 

Fabrea  maculata,  278. 

Fahrenheit  scale,  527. 

Fairs,  live-stock  in,  383. 

False  flax,  230. 

Farm  architecture,   473  ;    butter-mak- 
ing,   458 ;      crops,     composition    of, 
27 ;      crops,     propagation    of,     132 
engmeering,    473 ;     mechanics,    473 
machinery,    473 ;      points    of,     174 
practices.  172 ;    scoring.  175. 

Fast  horses,  357. 

Fat-hogs,  scoring,  402. 

Fathom,  measure,  528. 

Fat  in  milk,  442. 

Feathers,  care  of,  375. 

Feeding  of  animals,  409 ;  poultry, 
372;  standards,  414;  stuffs,  com- 
position, 419,  424  ;  weights,  533. 

Fence-posts,  207. 

Fence,  wire,  477. 

Ferns,  temperature  for,  198. 

Ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  254. 

Fertilizer  analyses,  57;  definition.  40; 
formulas,  45. 

Fertilizers,  chapter  on,  40;  for  va- 
rious crops,  60,  03 ;  trade  values, 
47,  50. 


INDEX 


575 


Ficus,  189. 

Fidia  viticida,  320. 

Field  crops,  dates  to  plant,  110  ;   yields 

of,  127. 
Figs,  grades,  530 ;    storing,  144. 
Figuring  fertilizer  values,  49. 
Finch,  on  incubation,  370. 
Finland,  money,  523. 
Fippin,  on  drains,  481,  483,  484;    on 

soils,  33,  36,  78,  79,  543. 
Fireproof  cement,  508,  509. 
Fish,     analysis,    58 ;    for    mosquitoes, 

246  ;   for  algae,  251. 
Fish-oil  as  insecticide,  298. 
Fitzroy,  on  weather,  12. 
Flax,  fertilizer  for,  70. 
Flaxseed,  weight,  536,  541. 
Flea-beetle,  303,  306,  330,  335. 
Fleischmann,  on  milk,  443. 
Floors,  material  for,  505. 
Florida  fruit  packages,  164. 
Florin,  522,  523. 

Florists'  plants,  Hst,  191 ;  scoring,  180. 
Flower     gum,     511  ;      flower-planting 

tables,  116;    flower-pots,  sizes,  199; 

to  keep  clean,  201. 
Flowers,  preserving,  546  ;  scoring,  179  ; 

state,  185  ;   to  keep  fresh,  550. 
Fluorin,  24. 

Fodder,  133  ;    composition,  28. 
Forage  crops,  133. 
Forcing  of  vegetables,  190. 
Forecasts  of  weather,  6. 
Forestry,  chapter  on,  202. 
Forestry  schools,  564. 
Forest-tree  seeds,  96. 
Forest  yields,  204. 
Formaldehyde    for    preserving    fruits, 

553  ;   in  milk,  450. 
Formalin,  256. 
Formulas  for  fertilizers,  45. 
Foundations,  cement,  506. 
Four-striped  plant-bug,  303. 
Fowl,  parts  of,  365  ;    chapter  on,  365  ; 

parasites    of,     377 ;      preparing    for 

market,   374. 
Fox,  gestation,  342. 
Fragaria  for  baskets,  189. 
Franc.  522,  523. 
Fraser,  on  grass  seed,  94,  95,  96 ;    on 

soiling,  136. 
Freesia,  189. 


French  money,  522,  523. 

Friction  of  water  in  pipes,  491. 

Frost,  12  ;  smudging,  16. 

Fruit  crops,  yields,  125;  packages,  163; 
packages  in  Canada,  167;  preserv- 
ing for  exhibition,  552,  556  ;  protect- 
ing from  birds,  244 ;    scoring,  177. 

Fruit  Marks  Act,  167  ;  fruit-tree 
seeds,  96;   distances,  119. 

Fuchsia,  189. 

Fuel-distillate,  222. 

Fuller,  windmills,  493,  495,  496,  497. 

Fumigation  for  insects,  287. 

Fungicides,  252. 

Fungous  diseases  as  insecticides,  290. 

Fusarium  oxysporum,  280 ;  sp.,  267 ; 
vasinfecta,  269. 

Fusicoccum  viticolum,  273. 

Gadolinium,  24. 

Galerucella  luteola,  319. 

Gall-fly,  raspberry,  331. 

Gallium,  24. 

Gallons,  capacities,  528. 

Galls,  303.      (See  Crown-gall.) 

Gardeners,  rules  for,  173. 

Gardens,  dates  to  plant,  106. 

Garriott,  on  weather,  10,  11,  12. 

Gas-lime,  analysis,  59. 

Gastrophilus  equi,  439. 

Gears,  498. 

Geese,  incubation,  342,  343. 

Geldings,  judging,  393. 

Georgia,  dates  in,  108. 

German  feeding  standards,  413. 

Germanium,  24. 

German  ivy,  189. 

German  money,  522,  523. 

German  potash  salts,  analysis,  42,  58. 

Germicides,  252. 

Germination,  100,  102. 

Gestation,  period  of,  342. 

Ginseng,  diseases,  270. 

Gipsy-moth,  303. 

Giraffe,  gestation,  342,  343. 

Girdling  by  rats  and  mice,  234. 

Glace  fruit,  143. 

Gladioli,     scoring,      180. 

Glass,  cement  for,  508;   radiation  for, 

191.  697. 
Glazing,  putty  for,  201. 
Gloeosporium  ribis,  270  ;  venetum,  281. 


576 


INDEX 


Glomerella  rufomaculans,  263,  272. 

Glvifinuni,  24. 

Glues,  511. 

Goat,    gestation,    342,    343;     milk    of, 

443,  444. 
GcEssmann,  analyses,  90. 
Gold,  24. 

Golden-seal,  diseases,  271. 
Gooseberries,    storing,     144 ;     to    pre- 
serve   for    exhibition,  555 ;    weight, 

536. 
Gooseberry,     diseases,    271 ;    fertilizer 

for,  70 ;  insects,  320. 
Gophers,  243. 
Grades   of  cotton,   150 ;    of  live-stock, 

404. 
Grading  butter,  465  ;  of  crops,  150. 
Grafting-wax,  512. 
Graham,  on  poultry,  374. 
Grain,  grading,  153. 
Grape  boxes,  163,   164;    diseases,  271; 

fertilizer  for,  70  ;   insects,  320. 
Grapes  and  raisins,  529. 
Grapes,    scoring,    178;     storing,     144; 

to     preserve     for     exhibition,     555 ; 

weight,  529. 
Graptodera    chalybca,  321  ;      foliacea, 

306. 
Grass,  fertilizer  for,  61,  70,  71  ;    seeds, 

94,  95. 
Grasshoppers,  315. 
Graybill,  on  ticks,  429,  435. 
Great  Britain,  money,  523. 
Greece,  money,  523. 
Green-fly,  301. 
Greenhouse  heating,  191  ;    work,   187  ; 

fumigating,  288. 
Green,  on  fence-posts,  207. 
Gross,  528. 

Ground  bone,  analysis,  57. 
Ground  hogs,  243. 
Ground  stjuirrels,  241. 
Grout  floors,  etc.,  505. 
Grub,  wliite,  303,  314. 
Guano,  composition,  SO. 
Guatemala,  money,  522.  523. 
Guaves,  weight,  533. 
Guernsey  records,  351. 
Guignardia    bidwellii,    272 ;      vaccinii, 

2()9. 
Guilder.  522. 
Guinea-hen,  incubation,  342,  343. 


Gums,  511. 

Guthrie,  (juoted,  458. 

Gymnoconia  interstitialis,  281. 

Gymnosporangium      globosum,      279 ; 

macropus,  264. 
Gypsum,  28,  37  ;    analysis,  59  ;  weight 

(land-plaster),  533,  540. 

Haberlandt,  on  seeds,  104. 

Hadena  sp.,  315. 

Haecker,  on  feeding,  410. 

Haematobia  scrrata,  437. 

Hsematopinus  sp.,  438,  441. 

Hair,  plastering,  weight,  536. 

Hairy-root,  276. 

Haiti,  money,  522,  523. 

Hall,  on  grades  of  live-stock,  404. 

Haltica  rufipes,  326  ;   striolata,  303. 

Hams,  grades  of,  406. 

Hand,  measure,  528. 

Hand-picking  insects,  286. 

Hardness  of  woods,  204. 

Hardy  vegetables,  108. 

Harger,  on  pulse  of  animals,  344 ;    on 

quantity  of  blood,  345. 
Harper,  on  young  at  birth,  343. 
Hawks,  245. 
Hawkweed,  232. 
Hay  and  pasture  seeds,  94. 
Hay,  grading,  151  ;    to  figure  on,  530. 
Hazen,  on  frost,  15. 
Head-maggot,  440. 
Heat  in  animals.  344. 
Heating  of  greenhouses,  191. 
Heliothis  armiger,  315;  obsoleta,  316, 

335. 
Helium,  24. 

Hellebore  insecticide,  300. 
Heller,  522. 

Hemerocampa  leucostigma,  309. 
Hemp  seed,  weight,  536,  541. 
Hen,  fleas.  378 ;   incubation,  342,  343 ; 

louse,  377. 
Henderson,  quoted,  107. 
Henry,  on  feeding,  414,  418,  419. 
Herbarium,  making,  545. 
Herbicides,  223,  228. 
Herd-book,  345. 
Herd's-grass,  weight,  536. 
Hessian-fly.  336. 
Ileterodera  radicicola,  303. 
Hickory  nuts,  weight,  533. 


INDEX 


577 


Hinges,  to  prevent  rusting,  510. 

Hog  manure,  82,  83,  87,  89  ;    parasites 

of,  441  ;    parts  of,  402. 
Hollyhock,  diseases,  273  ;   insect,  322. 
Holstein-Friesian  registry,  346  ;  records, 

349. 
Home  economics  schools,  566. 
Home  garden  plan,  123. 
Home-mixing  of  fertilizers,  52. 
Hominy,  weight,  533. 
Honduras,  money,  522,  523. 
Hops,  fertilizer  for,  71. 
Horn-fly,  437. 
Horse,  age  of,  339;    manure,   81,   83, 

87,  88  ;  milk  of,  443,  444  ;  parasites, 

439;   parts  of,  392;   rations,  418. 
Horse-nettle,  229. 
Horse-power  to  raise  water,   501  ;    of 

shafting,  501. 
Horse  radish,  fertilizer,  72  ;  weight,  533. 
Horses,  fast,  357  ;   judging,  392. 
Hoskin's  wax,  514. 
Hot-air  engines,  503. 
Hot  water  as  insecticide,  294. 
House-fly,  249. 
Household  measures,  528. 
Household  science  schools,  566. 
House-plant  insects,  322. 
Howard,  on  flies,  249,  250. 
Howard,  on  weather,  12. 
Human  body,  composition  of,  26,  27. 
Human  feces,  90 ;   milk  of,  443,  444. 
Hungarian-grass,  weight,  536. 
Hunter,  on  soiling,  137. 
Hyacinths,  189,  198. 
Hydraulic  rams,  503. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  29. 
Hj'drocyanic  acid  gas,  287. 
Hydrogen,  24,  25. 
Hygroscopic  water,  32. 
Hylastinus  obscurus,  314. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  307. 
Hypoderma  sp.,  437. 
Hypsopygia  costalis,  314. 

Incompatibles  in  fertilizers,  53. 
Incubation,  machine,  370  ;  periods,  342. 
India,  money,  523. 
Indium,  24. 

Inorganic  compounds,  25. 
Insecticides,     chapter     on,     286 ;      for 
animal  parasites,  434. 
2p 


Insects,      collecting,     551  ;      injurious, 

301. 
Inspection  of  dairies,  469,  472. 
Institutions  for  agriculture,  599. 
Interest,  rates  of,  524. 
lodin,  24. 
Iridium,  24. 

Iron,  24,  25 ;    cements,  507  ;    rust,  29. 
Iron    sulfate    as     fungicide,    258 ;     for 

weeds,  223,  227. 
Isobars.  5. 
Isosoma  sp.,  336. 
Isotherms,  5. 
ItaHan  money,  522,  523. 
Italian  rye-grass,  weight,  533. 

Japan,  money,  523. 
Jars  for  specimens,  558. 
Jenyms,  on  weather,  12. 
Jersey  records,  354. 
Jewelers'  weight,  516. 
Johnson-grass,  weight,  533. 
Jones,  on  drains,  484. 
Jones,  L.  R.,  on  weeds,  223. 
Jordan,  on  fertility,  38. 
Judging  animals,  383,  386,  392. 

Kafir,  grading,  161  ;   weight,  533. 

Kainit,  analysis,  42,  59. 

Kale,  weight,  533. 

Kaliosysphinga  ulmi,  319. 

Kali,  works,  quoted,  41,  42. 

Katydid,  on  peach  trees,  325 ;  on 
pineapple,  328. 

Keeping  fruits  and  vegetables,  141, 
149. 

Kellner,  on  feeding  standards,  416. 

Kerosene  for  emulsion,  294 ;  for  mos- 
quitoes, 245  ;    for  weeds,  223. 

King,  on  silos,  475,  476,  477;  on  til- 
lage, 37. 

King,  D.  W.,  on  road-drags,  487. 

King-head,  230. 

Knot,  measure,  528. 

Koenig,  on  milk,  443. 

Kosher,  405. 

Kran,  523. 

Krypton,  24. 

Labels,   557;    gum    for.    512;  to  pre- 
serve, 558. 
Lachnosterna  fusca,  303,  314,  328. 


578 


INDEX 


Lactometer  tost,  448. 

Lafean  bill,  168. 

Lamb,  grades  of,  406. 

Lambert,  on  feathers  and  eggs,  375. 

Land-plaster,    28,     37 ;     analysis,    59 ; 

weight,  533.  540. 
Lanthanum,  24. 
Lavender-bag,  552. 
Lawes  and  Gilbert,  quoted,  27. 
Lawn,  fertilizer  for,  71  ;    insects,  322 ; 

weeds  in,  232. 
Lead,  24;   arsenate  of,  291. 
Leaf-curl,  275. 
Leaf-prints,  549. 
Lecanium  corni,  329. 
Legal  weights  of  bushel,  533,  534,  540. 
Leguminous  cover-crops,  138. 
Lehmann  feeding  standards,  413. 
Lemon  boxes,  164 ;   insects,  323. 
Length,  measures  of,  517,  520. 
Lepidosaphes  beckii,  323  ;    ulmi,  308. 
Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  329. 
Lettuce,  diseases,   273 ;    fertilizer,   72 ; 

under  glass,   190 ;    insects,  322  ;    for 

packages,  170,  171. 
Leu,  523. 

Leucania  unipuncta,  315. 
Leuchars,  on  wind,  196. 
Lewis,  C.  L,  quoted,  166. 
Liberia,  money,  523. 
Lice,  on  cattle,  438 ;    powder,  436. 
Lichen  on  trees,  233. 
Light-horse,  scoring,  393. 
Light,  reflection  from  glass,  198. 
Ligyrus  gibbosus,  312;    rugiceps,  334. 
Lily  of  the  valley,  198. 
Lily,  under  glass,  198. 
Lima  bean,  diseases,  265. 
Lime  a.s  fungicide,  256 ;    classification 

of,    79;     for   the   land,    77;     weight 

per  bii.shel.  78,  536. 
Lirne-sulfur  flip,  434. 
LiiMc-sulfur.  formula,  256,  294. 
Litiiiiarithemum,    191. 
I^imnochari.s,  191. 
Lina  scripta,  329. 
Lindsey,  on  .soiling,  135. 
Line  or  linear  mea.sure,  517,  520,  528. 
Lin.seed,  weight,  536. 
Lion,  gestation,  342,  343. 
Lifjuid   manure,  83;    for   greenhouses, 

188. 


Liquid  measure,  517. 

Lira.  522,  523. 

Lists  for  window-gardens,  189. 

Litharge  in  cement,  508. 

Lithium,  24. 

Litmus  test,  77. 

Litter  (manure),  84. 

Little-peach,  276. 

Liver  of  sulfur,  258. 

Live-stock,   exhibiting,   383 ;    judging, 

383,  386,  392  ;   rules,  337. 
Lixus  concavus,  331. 
Llama,  milk  of,  443. 
Loess,  29. 
Log  measure,  212,  216,  218  ;  rules,  214, 

217,  219,  220;    scaling,  214. 
London  purple,  291. 
Longevity    of    fruit    plants,    125 ;     of 

seeds,  102,  104. 
Loudon's  rules  for  gardeners,  173. 
Louse,  hog,  441. 
Luke,  on  weather,  11. 
Lumber,  defined,  202, 
Lutecium,  24. 

Lyon  and  Fippin,  quoted,  33,  36. 
Lytta  sp.,  302. 

Macaroni  wheat,  155. 

Maceration,  skeletonizing  plants,  549. 

Machine  incubation,  370. 

Machinery,  chapter  on,  473.   . 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  322. 

Macrosyphum  pisi,  324. 

Magnesium,  24,  25. 

Mahernia,  189. 

Mairs,  on  soiling.  136. 

Maize,  weight,  534.  536,  541. 

Malacosoma,  sp.,  309. 

Malaria,  249. 

Malt,  weight,  536,  541. 

Manganese,  24. 

Mangels  as  field  crop,   140 ;    fertilizer 

for,  62. 
Manure  and  house-flies,  249 ;    chaptei 

on,  81. 
Mare,    gestation,   342,    343;     milk   of, 

443,  444. 
Margaropus  annulatus,  429. 
Margolin,  on  forest  yields,  205. 
Mark,  522,  523. 

Market  classes  of  live-stock,  404. 
Marketing  poultry,  374. 


INDEX 


679 


Market  milk,  scores,  462. 

Marssonia  perforans,  273. 

Mason  work,  504. 

Massachusetts  Hort.  Soc.  rules,  181. 

Matthew,  on  weather,  11. 

Maturities,  124. 

May-bug  or  beetle,  303,  314,  328. 

Mayetiola  destructor,  336. 

McGill,  on  milk,  443. 

Meal,  weight,  533,  534. 

Mealy-bug,  189,  303,  323,  333. 

Means,  on  alkali,  35. 

Measures  and  weights,  516. 

Mechanics,  chapter  on,  473. 

Melittia  satyriniformis,  331. 

Melon,  insects,  322. 

Melophagus  ovinus,  441. 

Memythrus  polistiformis,  321. 

Mending  cements,  507. 

Menopon  pallidum,  377. 

Mercuric  bichloride   as  fungicide,  255. 

Mercuric  oxid,  29. 

Mercury,  24. 

Merrill,  on  soil,  29. 

Methylated  spirit,  508. 

Metric  equivalents,  521 ;    weights  and 

measures,  519. 
Mexican  boll-wee\dl,  316. 
Mexico,  money,  522. 
Mice,  234. 

Michigan,  dates  in,  106. 
Middlings,  weight,  533. 
Midge,  pear,  326. 
Miles,  different,  528. 
Milk,  chapter  on,  442  ;   composition  of, 

442  ;   inspection,  469  ;   tests,  446. 
Millet,  fertilizer  for,  72;    weight,  536, 

540. 
Milo,  grading,  160. 
Milreis,  522,  523. 
Mineola    indigenella,     308 ;      vaccinii, 

317. 
Minnows    for     mosquitoes,    246 ;     for 

slime,     251. 
Minns,  on  root-crops,  140. 
Miscible  oils,  297. 
Mite,  304,  323. 
Moisture-test  for  milk,  45 1 ;  for  cheese, 

455. 
Moles,  242. 
Molybdenum,  24. 
Monetary  values,  522,  523. 


Money  tables,  521,  524. 

Monophadnus  rubi,  331. 

Moore,  on  soiling,  137. 

Mosquitoes,  245. 

Moss  on  trees,  233. 

Motors,  498. 

Mottled  butter,  461. 

Mows,  contents  of,  530. 

Mulford,  forestry,  203. 

Multiplication  of  plants,  130. 

Mumford,  F.  B.,  on  gestation,  342;  on 

heat,  344. 
Murgantia  histrionica,  312. 
Muriate  of  potash,  analysis,  58.     (See 

Kainit.) 
Musca  domestica,  249. 
Museums,  543. 
Mushroom,  insects,  190,  323. 
Muskmelon,  diseases,  274  ;  fertilizer  for, 

72  ;  packages,  170  ;   under  glass,  190. 
Muskrats,  243. 
Mustard,     weight,     540;      wild,     225, 

226,  230,  232. 
Mutton,  grades  of,  406. 
Mycosphaerella  sentina,  278 ;  fragariae, 

282. 
Myriophyllum,  191. 
Myristin,  443. 
Myrtus,  189. 
Myzus  cerasi,  313  ;   persicse,  325. 

Narcissus,  189. 

National  flowers,  186. 

Nectarine,  diseases,  274. 

Needham,  on  mosquitoes,  245,  246. 

Nelumbium,  191. 

Nematode  galls,  303. 

Nematus  ventricosus,  319. 

Neodymium,  24. 

Neon,  24. 

Netherlands,  money,  523. 

Newfoundland,  money,  523. 

New  York,  dates  in,  107. 

Nicaragua,  money,  522,  523. 

Nickel,  24. 

Nicotine  dips,  434. 

Niobium,  24. 

Nitrate  of  potash,  40 ;    of  soda^   29 ; 

of  soda,  analysis,  58. 
Nitric  acid,  29 ;   oxid,  29. 
Nitrogen,  24,  25  ;   source  of,  41. 
Nomenclature  rules,  183. 


580 


INDEX 


Norfolk,  datos  in,  107. 

Norway,  money,  523. 

Nuphar.  191. 

Nurse-crops,  140. 

Nursery,  for  forest  trees,  202. 

Nursery  stock,  diseases,  274;   fertilizer 

for,  72  ;    fuiuiKating,  2ScS. 
Nutrients,  digestible,  424. 
Nutritive  ratio,  413,  414. 
Nymphavi,  191. 

Oats,  disease's,  262,  274  ;    fertilizer  for, 

73;   grading,  157;    weight,  53G,  541. 
Oberea  bimaculata,  330. 
CEcanthus  niveus,  331. 
CEdenia,  2G0  ;   of  tomato,  283. 
Oemler,  quoted,  108. 
(Estris  ovis,  440. 
Ogden,    on   water-flow   in   pipes,    491  ; 

on  hydraulic  rams,  503  ;    on  hot-air 

engines,  503. 
Oils,  miscible,  297. 
Okra,  packages,  170. 
Olein,  443. 

Oleomargarin,  test  for,  455. 
Oncideres  sp.,  328. 
Onion,    diseases,    274 ;     fertilizer    for, 

73 ;     insects,    323 ;     packages,    169, 

171 ;  weight,  536,  541. 
Oospora  scabies,  266,  280. 
Orange  boxes,  164  ;  insects,  323  ;  trees, 

distances,  119. 
Oranges,  storing,  147. 
Orchard-grass,  weight,  536. 
Organic  compounds,  25. 
Organization  of  a  farm,  174, 
Orris-root,  552. 
Orthotylus  delicatus,  322. 
Osage  orange  .seed,  weight,  536. 
Oscinis  sp.,  313.     (Sec  Phytomyza.) 
Osmium,  24. 
Othonna,  189. 
Otis,  on  .soiling.  137. 
Otto  of  ro.ses,  551. 
Ouvirandra,   191. 
Over-run  in  butter-making,  454. 
Oxalis,  189. 
Oxygen,  24,  25. 
Oyster-shell  scale.  308. 
Ozonium  omnivorum,  269. 


Pa 


ce,  u  measure,  528. 


Pacers,  358. 

Packages,    for   fruits,    163 ;     for   vege- 
tables, Ki*.  171. 
Packing  ai)ples,  166. 
Paint,  for  greenhouse  roofs,    201  ;    for 

hot   water  pipes,   200 ;     required   for 

giv(Mi  surface,  511. 
Paints,  509. 

Paleacrita  vernata,  306. 
Palladium,  24. 
Palmatin,  443. 
Palm,  measure,  528. 
Palms,  house,  189,  198. 
Panama,  money,  522. 
Papaipema  nitela,  311. 
Paper  for  hotlieds,  200. 
Paper  measure,  519. 
Paper,  paints,  510. 

Papilio  astcrias,  324  ;  polyxenes,  313. 
Papyrus,  191. 
Paraffinc  oil,  297. 
Paraguay,  money,  523. 
Parasites  of  animals,  429,  434  ;  of  fowls, 

377. 
Paris  green,  291. 

Parsley,  insects,  324  ;   under  glass,  190. 
Parsnip,    fertilizer    for,    73 ;     insects, 

324;   weight,  536,  541. 
Parturition,  343. 
Party  flowers,  186. 
Pasture  seeds,  94 ;    soiling,  134. 
Pattison,  on  storing  grapes,  145. 
Peach,  diseases,  275  ;  dried,  529  ;   scor- 
ing, 177;   weight,  536;  fertilizer  for, 

74 ;   insects,  325. 
Pea,   diseases,   275 ;    fertilizer  for,   62, 

74.     (See  Peas.) 
Pea-hen,  incubation.  342,  343. 
Peanuts,  weight,  536. 
Pear,  disea.ses,  277  ;    fertilizer  for,  74  ; 

insects,  326. 
Pearson,   quoted,    172,   442,   443,   446, 

447,  44S,  450,  467,  469. 
Pears,  storing,  147  ;    weight,  536. 
Peas,  packages,  170,  171 ;    to  preserve 

for    exhibition,    555 ;     under    glass, 

190;   weight,  538,  541. 
Pecan,  insects,  327. 
Pegomya    brassicie,    312,    330;     cepe- 

torum,  323;   fusciceps,  311. 
Pelargoniums,  189. 
Penicilliura  sp.,  262. 


INDEX 


58i 


Penny,  521,  523. 

Peppers,  packages,  171. 

Perfume-jar,  552. 

Perfumery,  551. 

Peronospora  schleideniana,  274. 

Persia,  money,  523. 

Persian  insect  powder,  297. 

Persimmon,  insects,  328. 

Peru,  money,  522. 

Peseta,  522,  523. 

Peso,  522,  523. 

Petroleum  for  ticks,  429,  436. 

Pfennig,  522. 

Phalen,  quoted,  43,  44. 

Phelps,  on  soiling,  135. 

Phenology,  17. 

Phenolphthalein,  448,  449. 

Philippines,  money,  523. 

Phlffiotribus  liminaris,  325. 

Phlegethontius  sp.,  335. 

Phlycaenia  ferrugalis,  313. 

Phoma  betae,  266. 

Phosphate  rock,  production  of,  41. 

Phosphoric  acid,  source  of,  41. 

Phosphorus,  24,  25. 

Phosphorus  for  mice,  236. 

Phthorimsea  operculclla,  330. 

Phyllosticta  solitaria,  263. 

Phyllotreta  vittata,  303. 

Phylloxera,  321.     Phytomyza,  313. 

Phytophthora     cactorum,     260,     271 

infestans,  279,  283  ;    phaseoli,  265. 
Phytoptus  oleivorus,  323. 
Pi,  528. 
Piaster,  523. 
Pickle-worm,      318. 
Pigeon,  incubation,  342,  343. 
Pineapple,  insects,  328. 
Pipes,  contents,  531 ;   paint  for,  200. 
Piricularia  oryzae,  281. 
Pistia,  191. 
Piston  pumps,  499. 
Pitch  wax,  513. 
Plan  for  home  garden,  123. 
Plantain,  226,  229. 
Plant-bug,  303. 

Plant  diseases,  chapter  on,  259. 
Plant-food,  in  soils,  34. 
Planting-tables,    106,    109,    110,    116, 

119;   for  forest  trees,  202. 
Plant-lice,  301. 
Plants,  collecting,  545. 


PlcvSmodiophora  brassicae,  266. 

Plasmopara  viticola,  272. 

Plastering  hair,  weight,  536. 

Plaster  of  paris  paint,  509. 

Platinum,  24. 

Plowrightia  morbosa,  279. 

Plum,  diseases,  279  ;  fertilizer  for,  74  ; 
insects,  329 ;  scoring,  178 ;  to  pre- 
serve for  exhibition,  555  ;  weight,  540. 

Podosphaera  oxycanthae,  267. 

Pcecilocapsus  lineatus,  303. 

Point  (in  type),  528. 

Points  of  a  farm,  174. 

Poison  ivy,  229. 

Poisons  for  herbaria,  546. 

Polychrosis  viteana,  320. 

Pomological  nomenclature,  183. 

Ponds,  slime  on,  251. 

Pontederia,  191. 

Pontia  rapse,  311. 

Popcorn,  weight,  540. 

Poplar,  insects,  329. 

Pork,  grades  of,  406. 

Porthetria  dispar,  303. 

Portland  cement,  504. 

Portugal,  money,  523. 

Potash,  28;  salts,  analysis,  42,  58; 
source  of,  42,  43,  44,  45. 

Potassium,  24,  25. 

Potassium  cyanide,  287. 

Potassium  ferrocyanide,  254. 

Potassium  sulfid,  258. 

Potato,  diseases,  279  ;  packages,  169 ; 
weight,  538,  541;  fertilizer  for,  74; 
insects,  329  ;   scoring,  177. 

Potting  earth,  187. 

Poultry,  chapter  on,  365  ;  farm,  judg- 
ing, 381  ;   manure,  84  ;   rules,  378. 

Pound  (of  money),  521,  523. 

Prairie-dogs,  242. 

Praseodymium,  24. 

Preservatives  in  milk,  449,  450. 

Preserving  flowers,  546 ;  fruits  for 
exhibition,  552,  556;  labels,  558: 
fence-posts,  207. 

Prickly  lettuce,  229. 

Prim,  insects,  330. 

Primrose,  189,  198. 

Primulas,  198. 

Prince,  on  weather,  11. 
j  Printing  plants,  548. 
I  Privet,  insects,  330. 


582 


INDEX 


Profit-aiul-loss  in  dairying,  300. 
PropaKation  of  crops.  130.  131,  13l>. 
Protcoptcryx  tleiudana.  327. 
Prunes,  wi-ight.  540. 
Prussiatr  of  potiush,  254. 
Psi'udoroccus   calceolariaj,    333 ;     citri, 

323  ;    sp.,  303. 
Psoudoporonospora  cubensis,  270. 
Pseudopt'ziza  niodicaginis,  262. 
Psila  rosaj,  302. 
Psoroptos  comniunis,  440. 
Psylla,  327. 
Pteris,  189. 
Puccinia  asparagi,  265  ;   chrysanthemi, 

268 ;    coronata,    274  ;    malvacearum, 

273 ;     maydis,    269 ;    pruni-spinosae, 

279. 
Pulleys,  498. 
Pulse  of  animals,  344. 
Pumping  by  windmills,  494. 
Pumpkin,  diseases,  280 ;    fertilizer  for, 

74. 
Pumps,  capacity  of,  499,  500. 
Purity  of  seed,  100. 
Putty  for  glazing,  201. 
Pyrethrum  powder,  297. 
Pythium  deBaryanum,  260. 

Quack-grass,  225,  231. 

Quantity  of  seed  per  acre,  92. 

Quevenne  readings,  447,  449. 

Quicklime,  28. 

Quin,  on  preserving  flowers,  547. 

Quince,    diseases,    280 ;     fertilizer   for, 

74;      insects,     330;      storing,     147; 

weight,  540. 
Quincunx  planting,  123. 
Quincy,  on  soiling,  134. 

Rabbit,  milk  of,  236,  238,  444. 

Racing  horses.  357. 

Radiation  for  glass,  196. 

Radish,    diseases,    280 ;     fertilizer   for, 

75 ;     insects,    330 ;     packages,    171  ; 

under  glass,  190. 
Radium,  24. 
Railroad  worm,  306. 
Raisins,  529. 
Rams,  hydraulic,  503. 
Rape  seed,  weight,  540. 
Raspberries,   dried,   529 ;    to    preserve 

for    exhibition,    555 ;     weight,    540 ; 


diseases,     281;      fertilizer    for,     75, 

insects,  330. 
Rat,  234;   gestation,  342,  343. 
Rations    for   animals,    409,    410,    413; 

for  poultry.  372. 
Rawl  and  ( 'onover,  silos,  473. 
Raw  materials  of  fertilizers,  46. 
Rawson,  quoted,  106. 
Rayner,  on  windmills,  494. 
Reaumur  scale,  527. 
Reddick  on  fungicides,  252  ;    on  plant 

diseases,  259. 
Red-spider,  304,  323,  328,  336. 
Red-top,  weight,  538. 
Registry,  advanced,  345. 
Regolith,  29. 
Reindeer,  milk  of,  443. 
Renovated  butter,  455. 
Resin  and  fish-oil,  298. 
Resin-sol-soda-sticker,  258. 
Resin  waxes,  512. 
Rhagolctis  pomonella,  306. 
Rhizoctonia.  sp.,  200.  267,  274. 
Rhodites  radicum,  331. 
Rhodium,  24. 
Rhubarb,    insects,    331 ;    under   glass, 

190 ;   weight,  540. 
Rice,  diseases,  281 ;  weight,  538. 
Rice,  on  poultry  farms,  381. 
Richmond,  on  milk,  443,  447. 
Rideal,  on  sewage,  90. 
Road-drags,  485,  487. 
Roberts,    on    horse's    teeth,    339 ;    on 

manures,  85,  86,  87  ;   on  soil,  34. 
Roofs  for  greenhouses,  199. 
Root-crops,  140. 
Root-gall,  303.    See  Crown-gall. 
Roots,  composition,  28  ;    storing,  147. 
Root-worm  of  grape,  320. 
Ropes,  str(>ngth  of,  481, 
Rose,     198 ;      diseases,    281  ;     insects, 

331  ;    scoring,  179. 
Rose  blooms,  to  keep  fresh,  550. 
Rose-chafer  on  bug,  308,  322. 
Rose,    on    motor    power    of    stream, 

502. 
Rosette  of  peach,  276. 
Ross,  on  dairying,  453,  455,  456,  471. 
Rotation  for  plant    diseases,  253 ;    for 

ticks,  435. 
Rothamsted,  quoted,  30. 
Rot  of  potatoes,  279. 


INDEX 


583 


Roughage,  133. 

Roughs,  grades  of,  407. 

Roumania,  money,  523. 

Rubidium,  24. 

Ruble,  522,  523. 

Rules   for   gardeners,    173 ;    for   plant 

exhibitions,  181, 
Rupee,  523. 

Russian  money,  522,  523. 
Rusting  of  boilers,  200 ;    of  nails  and 

pipes,  510,  511. 
Rutabaga  as  field  crop,  141,   538. 
Ruthenium,  24. 
Rye,  fertilizer  for,  75 ;    grading,   157 ; 

weight,  538,  541. 
Rye-grass,  weight,  533. 

Sage,  weight,  540. 

Sagittaria,  191. 

Saissetia  oleae,  323. 

Salads,  weight,  540. 

Sal  ammoniac,  507. 

Salt,  29  ;   for  weeds,  222,  223  ;   test  for 

butter,  453  ;  for  cheese,  453  ;  weight, 

538. 
Saltpeter,  29,  40. 
Salvador,  money,  522,  523. 
Salvinia,  191. 
Samarium,  24. 
Sample  rations,  417. 
Sanitary  milk,  scoring,  467,  471. 
San  Jose  scale,  304. 
Sanninoidea  exitiosa,  325. 
Santo  Domingo,  money,  522, 
Saperda  Candida,  308. 
Sarcoptes  sp.,  378. 
Sawfly,  currant,  319. 
Saxifraga,  189. 
Scab  of  apple,  264 ;    of  potatoes,  280 ; 

of  sheep,  440. 
Scabies  of  fowls,  378. 
Scale  in  boilers,  200. 
Scale-insects,  304,  308,  323,  329. 
Scale,  San  Jose,  304. 
Scaly-leg  of  fowls,  378. 
Scandium,  24. 
Schaefell's  wax,  514. 
Schistoceros  hamatus,  309. 
Schizocerus  sp.,  334. 
Schizoneura  lanigera,  310. 
Schone,  on  soil,  31. 
Schools  of  agriculture,  561,  564. 


Schroeter,  on  seeds,  94. 

Scirpus,  191. 

Sclerotinia  fructigena,  267,  275 ;  lib- 
ertiana,  274. 

Scolytus  rugulosus,  326. 

Score,  528. 

Score-card  for  apples,  177 ;    for  carna- 
tions,   179 ;    for    cherries,    178 ;     for 
chrysanthemum,  180  ;   for  corn,  177 
for   farms,    175 ;     for   gladioli,    180 
for  grapes,   178;    for  peaches,   177 
for  plums,   178 ;    for   potatoes,   177 
for    poultry,    367 ;     for    roses,    179 
for    sweet    pea,    180 ;     for    animals, 
392  ;    for  florists'  plants,  180  ;    cards 
in  dairying,  462-472. 

Screw-worm  fly,  438. 

Sealing  cements,  508. 

Seaweed,  analysis,  60. 

Sections  of  land,  542. 

Sediment  in  boilers,  200. 

Sedum,  189. 

Seed  diseases,  284  ;  per  acre,  92  ;  test- 
ing, 96,  100. 

Seeds,  chapter  on,  92  ;  collecting,  544 ; 
composition,  28 ;  vitality  of,  102, 
104. 

Seedsmen's  weights  of  seeds,  97. 

Selandria  vitis,  320. 

Selenium,  24. 

Senecio,  189. 

Septoria  chrysanthemi,  268 ;  lyco- 
persica,  283;  petroselina,  267; 
ribis,  270. 

Serradella,  138. 

Servia,  money,  523. 

Sesia  pyri,  326;  scitula,  328;  tip- 
uliformis,  318. 

Sewage,  analysis,  90. 

Shafting,  501. 

Sheep,  determining  age,  338 ;  gesta- 
tion, 342,  343;  judging,  399,  401; 
manure,  82,  83,  87,  89;  milk  of, 
443,  444;  parasites,  440;  parts  of, 
400  ;    profit  or  loss,  362. 

Shekel,  523. 

ShiUing,  521,  523. 

Shutt,  on  preservatives,  552, 

Siam,  money,  523. 

SUage,  134,  474. 

Silicon,  24,  25. 

Silos,  473. 


584 


INDEX 


Silver,  24. 

Simon,  on  milk,  444. 

Simulium  pecuarum,  438. 

Six's  thermometers,  1. 

Size,  measure,  528. 

Sizes  of  seeds,  98. 

Skeleton  of  cock,  368. 

Skeletonizing  plants,  549. 

Slime  on  ponds,  251. 

Smilax,  198. 

Smith,  J.  B.,  on  mosquitoes,  247. 

Smoking  for  insects,  287. 

Smudging  for  frosts,   16;    for  insects, 

287. 
Smut    of    cereals,    260,    261,    262;     of 

corn,  269  ;    of  onions,  274. 
Snails.  305. 
Snyder,  quoted,  28. 
Soap  insecticide,  293,  298,  299. 
Societies,  rural,  560. 
Soda-and-aloes  insecticide,  299. 
Sodium,  24,  25. 
Soil    analysis,    54 ;     chapter    on,    24 ; 

diseases,  284  ;    taking  samples,  543. 
Soiling,  133,  134. 
Solid  measure,  518. 
Sorghum,     fertilizer     for,     75 ;      seed, 

weight,  538. 
Sow,  gestation,  342,  343. 
Sow-thistle,  231. 
Spain,  money,  523. 
Span,  a  measure,  528. 
Spanish  money,  522,  523. 
Sparrows,  244. 
Spearmint  under  gla.ss,  190. 
Specific  gravity  of  soils,  31. 
Specimen  jars,  558. 
Specks  in  butter,  461. 
Speltz,  weight,  540. 
Spermojjhile.s,  241. 
Sphaceloma  ampelinum,  271. 
Sphajropsis  malorum,  264,  280. 
Spha;rotheca     castagnei,     282 ;     leuco- 

tricha,   264 ;    mors-uvse,   271 ;    pan- 

nosa,  276,  281. 
Spinach,   diseases,   281  ;    fertilizer  for, 

75 ;     packages,     170 ;     under    glass, 

190;    weight,  540. 
Spiny  amaranth,  229. 
Spirogyra  in  p(jnd.s,  251. 
Split-log  drag,  487. 
Spoonful,  measure,  528. 


Spoon-test  for  oleomargarin,  455. 
Spraying  cattle,  433  ;   plants,  252,  286. 
Square  measure,  518. 
Squashes,  package,  171;    storing,  147; 

fertilizer  for,  76;   insects,  331. 
Squirrel,  gestation,  342,  343. 
Stable  manure,  81. 
Stables,  to  disinfect,  434. 
Stacks,  contents  of,  530. 
Stags,  grades  of,  404,  407. 
Stake  labels,  557. 
Standardizing  milk,  450. 
Starch,  29. 
Stassfurt  salts,  42. 
State  flowers,  185. 
Steam,  sterilizing  by,  253. 
Stebler  and  Schroeter,  94. 
Steers,  grades  of,  404 ;    profit  or  loss, 

362. 
Sterilizing  by  steam,  253. 
Stevenson,  on  soil,  30,  32. 
Stewart,  J.  P.,  quoted,  49. 
Stigmaeus  fioridanus,  328. 
Stocks,  198. 

Stocks  for  various  plants,  131. 
Stone,  J.  L.,  on  feeding,  424. 
Stone,  a  measure,  528. 
Storing  fruits  and  vegetables,  141,  149; 

animal  products,  345. 
Storms,  2. 

Straits  Settlements,  money,  523. 
Straw,    grading,    151,    152;     composi- 
tion, 28. 
Strawberries,   packages,    171  ;    to   pre- 
serve   for    exhibition,  556 ;    weight, 
540 ;    diseases,     282 ;    fertilizer    for, 
76;  insects,  332. 
Stream,  power  of,  502. 
String  beans,  packages,  170. 
String,  waxed,  513. 
Strontium,  24. 

Strychnine,  composition,  29  ;   for  mice, 
235  ;    for  sparrows,  244  ;   for  ground 
.squirrels,  241,  242. 
Sugar,  composition,  29. 
Sugar-cane,  insects,  333  ;  seed,  weight, 

540. 
Sulfate  of  ammonia,  analysis,  58. 
Sulfate   of   copper   as    fungicide,    258: 

for  bordeaux,  253;   for  ponds,  251. 
Sulfate  of  iron  as  fungicide,  258. 
Sulfate  of  magnesia,  analysis,  58. 


INDEX 


585 


Sulfate  of  potash,  29 ;   analysis,  58. 

Sulfid  of  potassium,  258. 

Sulfur,    25 ;     as    fungicide,    258 ;     as 

insecticide,  299  ;   for  rabbits,  237. 
Sulfuric  acid,  29  ;   for  weeds,  222,  223. 
Sulfurous  acid  to  preserve  fruits,  553. 
Sumac,  insects,  334. 
Surface  measure,  518,  520. 
Surveyors'  measure,  518. 
Surveys,  government,  541. 
Sweden,  money,  523. 
Sweet  clover,  138. 
Sweet  herbs  under  glass,  190. 
Sweet  pea,  198 ;  scoring,  180. 
Sweet-potato,  diseases,  282  ;   packages, 

170;     weight,    538;     insects,    334; 

storing,  148. 
Swine,   determining  age,   339 ;    grades 

of,  407  ;   judging,  402,  404  ;   milk  of, 

444 ;    parasites,  441 ;    profit  or  loss, 

362. 
Switzerland,  money,  523. 

Tablespoonful,  528. 

Tael,  523. 

Taft,  on  greenhouses,  199. 

Talent  (of  money),  523. 

Tanglefoot,  299. 

Tanks,  circular,  531 ;    square,  532. 

Tantalum,  25. 

Taper  in  logs,  216. 

Tar  as  insecticide,  299. 

Tar  cement,  508. 

Tartar  emetic  for  mice,  235. 

Taylor,  on  fruit  packages,  164. 

Teaspoonful,  528. 

Teeth  of  animals,  337,  339. 

Tellurium,  25. 

Temperature  for  incubation,  370 ; 
of  animals,  344 ;  for  animal  prod- 
ucts, 345 ;  for  plants  under  glass, 
198. 

Tender  vegetables,  108. 

Tent-caterpillar,  309. 

Terbium,  25. 

Termites,  305. 

Test-plots  for  soils,  56. 

Tetranychus  bimaculatus,  304,  336 ; 
sexmaculatus,  323. 

Texas-fever  ticks,  429. 

Texture  of  soil,  32. 

Thallium,  25. 


Therm,  409. 

Thermometer  scales,  527. 

Thermometers,  1. 

Thielavia  basicola,  271,  282,  283. 

Thorium,  25. 

Thrips.     See  rose,  grape,  pear,  etc. 

Thrips  tabaci,  323. 

Thulium,  25. 

Thyridopterix  ephemerseformis,  301. 

Tical,  523. 

Tick  of  fowls,  378 ;  of  sheep,  441  ; 
cattle,  429. 

Tile-draining,  481. 

Tillage,  37. 

Tilletia  foetens,  262. 

Timber,  defined,  202. 

Time  for  germination,  102,-  for  fruit- 
bearing,  124. 

Timothy  seed,  weight,  538,  541. 

Tin,  25. 

Titanium,  25. 

Tmetocera  ocellana,  306. 

Tobacco,  diseases,  282  ;  fertilizer  for, 
76  ;   insecticide,  299  ;  insects,  335 . 

Tomato,  diseases,  283  ;  packages,  169  ; 
weight,  538 ;  fertilizer  for,  76 ;  in- 
sects, 335 ;  storing,  149 ;  under 
glass,  190. 

Ton,  516  ;  to  figure  by,  530. 

Townships,  measurement  of,  541. 

Trade  value  of  fertilizers,  47,  50. 

Tradescantia,  189. 

Trapa,  191. 

Tree  seeds  in  pound,  96. 

Trichobaris  trinotata,  29. 

Trichodectes  scalaris,  438. 

Trotters,  357.' 

Troy  weight,  516. 

Truck  packages,  169,  171. 

Trueman,  on  butter-making,  458. 

Tulip,  198. 

Tungsten,  25. 

Turbines,  502. 

Turkey,  incubation,  342,  343. 

Turkey,  money,  523. 

Turnip  as  field  crop,  141 ;  fertilizer  for, 
77;   weight,  538,  541. 

Tussock-moth,  309. 

Twig-borer,  309. 

Twig-pruner,  309. 

Tyloderma  fragariae,  332. 

Typha,  191. 


5SG 


INDEX 


Tvphlocyba  comes,  321  ;  roste,  331. 
Typhoid  fly.  249. 
Typophorus  rancllus,  333. 

Uranium,  25. 
Urine,  83,  88,  89,  90. 
Urocystis  cepula?,  274. 
Uromyces  caryophyllinus,  267. 
Uruguay,  money,  522. 
Ustilago  sp.,  261,  262,  269. 

Vallota,  189. 

Vanadium,  25. 

Van  Dine,  sugar-cane  insects,  333. 

Van  Horn,  quoted,  41,  42. 

Van  Slyke  on  fertilizers,  63  ;    on  milk, 

443,  444,  449,  456. 
Veal,  grades  of,  405. 
Vegetable  packages,  169,  171. 
Vegetables,  dates  for,   106 ;    distances 

for,    109,    119;    nomenclature,    183; 

propagation   of,    131 ;    under   glass, 

190. 
Velvet-grass  seed,  weight,  540. 
Venezuela,  money,  522. 
Venturia  intcqualis,  264  ;   pyrina,  278. 
Veratrum  album,  300. 
Vetch,  as  cover-crop,  138,  139 ;  weight 

of,  139. 
Veterinary  schools,  565. 
Victoria,  191. 
Vieth,  on  mUk,  443. 
Vilmorin,  on  seeds,  98,  102. 
Vinca,  189. 
Violet,    198 ;     diseases,    283 ;     insects, 

335. 
Voorhees,   on  milk,  443 ;    quoted,   45, 

50. 

Wage-tables,  526. 

Walks,  material  for,  505,  506 ;    weeds 

on,  233. 
Walnuts,  weight,  540. 
Wandering  Jew,   189. 
Warble-fly.  437. 
Warren,  scoring  farms,  175. 
Warrington,  (luoted,  30. 
Washes  for  fences,  509. 
Water,  data  on,  489. 
Water  in  soil,  32. 
Water-cress,  packages,  170. 
Watering  plants,  188. 


Watermelon,  fertilizer  for,  77 ;  grades, 
530. 

Waterproofing.  510  ;   paper,  550. 

Water-wheels.  502. 

Watson,  on  .soiling,  136. 

Wax,  grafting,  512. 

Weather,  1  ;  map,  2,  4  ;  records,  19 ; 
signs,  11  ;    vane,  23. 

Web-worm,  307. 

Weed-killers,  223,  228. 

Weeds,  chapter  on,  221 ;   lawns,  232. 

Weight  of  soils.  30  ;  weights  and  meas- 
ures, 516,  520;  poultry,  366;  seeds, 
97,  98. 

Wellhouse,  rabbit-trap,  238. 

Wells,  capacities,  531. 

Wethers,  scoring,  399. 

Whale-oil  soap,  298. 

Wheat,  fertilizer  for,  77  ;  grading,  153  ; 
insects,  336;    weight,  538,  541. 

Wheeler,  on  lime,  77. 

Whey,  butter  from,  461. 

White  ants,  305. 

White  daisy,  231. 

White  grub,  303,  314. 

White  hellebore,  300. 

White-wash,  509. 

White-weed,  231. 

Whitney,  on  soil,  32. 

Widtsoe,  on  soils,  34. 

Wild  carrot,  230. 

Wild  oats,  230. 

Willis,  on  fence-posts,  207 ;  on  shingles, 
209. 

Willow,  insects,  336. 

Wilson,  C.  S.,  box  packing,  166. 

Wilson,  on  weather,  11,  12,  16,  19. 

Wind,  in  cooling  glass,  196 ;  indica- 
tions, 9. 

Windmills,  493,  494. 

Wing,  age  of  animals,  337. 

Winter  injury,  268. 

Wire,  fence,  477. 

Wire-worm,  305,  315. 

Woburn,  quoted,  31. 

Wolf,  gestation,  342. 

Wolff,  analyses,  90. 

Wolff-Lehmann  Standards,  413. 

Woll,  on  soiling  crops,  134,  135. 

Wolves,  243. 

Wood,  hardness  of,  204. 

Wood  crops,  204. 


INDEX 


587 


Woodchucks,  243. 
Woolly  aphis,  310. 
Wounds,  waxes  for,  514. 

Xenon,  25. 
Xyleborus  pyri,  326. 

Yellows,  277. 
Yen,  523. 

Yields  of  forests,  204; 
tables,  125,  127. 


of  seeds,  105 


Youatt,  on  gestation,  342. 
Ytterbium,  25. 
Yttrium,  25. 

Zebrina,  189. 

Zebu,  milk  of,  443. 

Zinc,  25. 

Zinc  chloride  to  preserve  fruits,  653. 

Zirconium,  25. 

Zizania,  191. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


m' 


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